Cardiovascular disease and risk assessment in people living with HIV: Current practices and novel perspectives

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection represents a major cardiovascular risk factor, and the cumulative cardiovascular disease (CVD) burden among aging people living with HIV (PLWH) constitutes a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. To date, CVD risk assessment in PLWH remains challenging. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate and stratify the cardiovascular risk in PLWH with appropriate screening and risk assessment tools and protocols to correctly identify which patients are at a higher risk for CVD and will benefit most from prevention measures and timely management. This review aims to accumulate the current evidence on the association between HIV infection and CVD, as well as the risk factors contributing to CVD in PLWH. Furthermore, considering the need for cardiovascular risk assessment in daily clinical practice, the purpose of this review is also to report the current practices and novel perspectives in cardiovascular risk assessment of PLWH and provide further insights into the development and implementation of appropriate CVD risk stratification and treatment strategies, particularly in countries with high HIV burden and limited resources.

Endothelial glycocalyx improvement after six months and one-year of antiretroviral therapy in treatment naive patients with human immunodeficiency virus

Background

Chronic inflammation induced by Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) plays a key role in the development of early cardiovascular (CV) disease. The impact of currently recommended first line antiretroviral therapy (ART) on CV risk early after treatment initiation is still under investigation. We aimed to explore any treatment-induced changes in endothelial function through endothelial glycocalyx measurement (EG) in treatment naïve HIV patients' one year post HIV treatment initiation by different ART agents.

Methods

We estimated endothelial function by endothelial glycocalyx integrity measurement in 58 recently diagnosed and treatment naïve HIV patients (mean age=38+10 years, 91% males, 61% smokers) at baseline and at 1-year post ART initiation (integrase or protease inhibitors). Increased perfusion boundary region (PBR) of the sublingual arterial microvessels (ranged from 5–25 micrometers) using Sideview Darkfield imaging (Microscan, Glycocheck) was measured as a non-invasive accurate index of reduced EG thickness.

Results

From a total population of 54 HIV patients, 35 patients were randomly treated by the newer integrase inhibitor Dolutegravir (Group A, mean age = 37±10 years, 89% males, 54% smokers) while 22 patients by the older protease inhibitor Darunavir/Cobicistat (Group B, mean age = 38±10 years, 95% males, 74% smokers). No differences were found between groups regarding age, weight, lipid profile (LDL-C, HDL-C, triglycerides), office (SBP, DBP) and central (cBP) blood pressure. We found that weight (76±14 vs. 81±16 kg, p<0.001), SBP (125±12 vs. 130±14 mmHg, p=0.003) and cBP (116±12 vs. 121±12 mmHg, p=0.001) were increased in the entire HIV population, at 1 year post-treatment. At 6 months evaluation, PBR5–25 was decreased in the entire HIV population and Group A (2.18±0.3 μm vs. 2.05±0.3 μm, p=0.01 and 2.19±0.3 μm vs. 2.02±0.3 μm, p=0.02, respectively). However, at 1-year post treatment evaluation, PBR5–25 was decreased in all groups, total HIV population, Group A and Group B (2.18±0.3 μm vs. 1.96±0.3 μm, p<0.001, 2.19±0.3 μm vs. 1.93±0.3 μm, p=0.003 and 2.17±0.3 vs. 1.99±0.3, p=0.04, respectively).

Conclusions

Endothelial function, estimated by endothelial glycocalyx integrity, is improved in newly diagnosed and treatment naïve HIV patients, evaluated at 6 and 12 months post-treatment initiation by integrase or protease inhibitors despite weight and blood pressure increase.

Funding Acknowledgement

Type of funding sources: None.

The prognostic significance of the echocardiographic evaluation of left ventricular myocardial deformation indices at peak cardiopulmonary exercise in patients with severe dilated cardiomyopathy

Background

Cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) integrally estimates exercise capacity (peak VO2) and cardiovascular (CV) prognosis (VE/VCO2 slope) in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). Myocardial deformation indices (MDI), measured by speckle tracking imaging (STI), allow reliable measurements of left ventricular (LV) function. Little is known about the exercise-induced changes of the multidimensional mechanical properties of the heart and their impact in patient's survival. We aimed to investigate the predictive role regarding 3-year survival of LV MDI (at rest and peak exercise) as well as the main CPET parameters (peak VO2, VE/VCO2 slope) in DCM patients with reduced ejection fraction (EF) using as primary combined end-point the heart transplantation and all cause death.

Patients and methods

We evaluated LV function using STI at rest and at peak exercise during the same CPET session in 53 DCM patients (54±12 years, 76% males, ejection fraction 33±9%).We measured global longitudinal strain (GLS), longitudinal strain rate at systole (LSRS) and diastole (LSRD) at baseline and at peak CPET along with CPET parameters. After a period of 38±15 months, all DCM patients were evaluated by a telephone interview.

Results

From the whole population, totally 7 patients (13%) reached the primary end-point (Group A) as 2 patients were submitted to heart transplantation and 5 patients died (60±13 years, 86% males, EF = 28±9%) while 46 patients remained alive at 3-year follow-up (Group B, 53±12 years, 74% males, EF = 33±9%). We found that Group A patients had similar age, sex and EF but reduced peak VO2 (p=0.04) and increased VE/VCO2 slope (p=0.004), impaired GLS at baseline and peak exercise (p=0.02 and p=0.04, respectively) as well as LSRS at peak exercise (p=0.05) compared to Group B patients.

Conclusions

The evaluation of GLS (rest and peak exercise) and LSRS (peak exercise) as systolic indices of LV myocardial deformation adds valuable information regarding CV prognosis in patients with severe idiopathic DCM. A combined baseline work-up protocol consisted of MDI evaluation at rest and exercise plus the CPET indices may characterize the true severity of heart failure in a DCM population.

Funding Acknowledgement

Type of funding sources: None.

Isolated diastolic hypertension is not a benign situation regarding hypertension mediated organ damage in patients with first diagnosed and never treated essential hypertension

Background

Isolated diastolic hypertension (IDH) usually remains untreated as it is considered benign compared to isolated systolic or combined systolic/diastolic hypertension. Hypertension mediated organ damage (HMOD) needs to be assessed in each individual hypertensive patient in order to estimate cardiovascular risk. We aimed to investigate the HMOD differences between first diagnosed and never treated patients with IDH compared to normotensive subjects.

Methods

From 550 first diagnosed and never-treated hypertensive and non-diabetic patients, we studied 81 patients with IDH (mean age = 49±9, 63% males, 26% smokers) and 53 normotensives (mean age = 51±13, 30% males, 28% smokers). Office and ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (24h ABPM), CV risk factors [smoking, obesity (BMI), hyperlipidemia and HMOD [aortic stiffness (PWV), left ventricular diastolic dysfunction (EEa), cardiac mass (LVMI) and cardiac hypertrophy (LVH), coronary arteries microcirculation (CFR), carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT) were estimated in each hypertensive patient as well as normotensive subject.

Results

IDH patients had similar age, BMI, lipid profile, central systolic BP and smoking habit, and increased systolic (139±12 vs. 133±18, p=0.03), diastolic (89±9 vs. 84±9 mmHg, p=0.02) and mean office BP (106±9 vs. 82±9 mmHg, p<0.001) as well as 24h systolic (125±3 vs. 119±6 mmHg, p<0.001) and diastolic ABPM (84±4 vs. 73±4 mmHg, p<0.001) compared to normotensives. Regarding HMOD, IDH patients had LVH in 7/81 (9%). Increased LVMI (79±18 vs. 69±18 g/m2, p=0.01) and IMT (0.9±0.2 vs. 0.8±0.1 mm, p=0.01) but similar PWV, E/Ea and CFR were found compared to normotensives. In multiple regression analysis (age and weight were used as independent variables), LVMI was independently related to office systolic (Beta=0.26, p=0.02) and diastolic BP (Beta=0.28, p=0.01) as well as central diastolic BP (r=0.38, p=0.04) while no relationship was found between LVMI and 24h ABPM.

Conclusions

The presence of HMOD in IDH in first diagnosed and never treated patients with arterial hypertension underscores the need for antihypertensive treatment (life style changes and medication). As HMOD may regress with successful antihypertensive treatment, there is still time for physicians to reduce future CV events in those patients.

Funding Acknowledgement

Type of funding sources: None.

Smoking habit does not differentiate young patients with first diagnosed and never treated hypertensive disease regarding blood pressure levels and hypertension mediated organ damage

Background

Early onset hypertension is associated with a considerably greater risk for CVD mortality compared with hypertension that begins later in life. Aim of this study is the evaluation of cardiovascular risk (CV) factors and hypertension mediated organ damage (HMOD) in young patients with first diagnosed and never treated hypertensive disease regarding smoking habit.

Methods

From a cohort of 520 non-diabetic and first diagnosed and never treated hypertensive patients, we studied those patients aged <50 years (n=216, age=42±7, 149 males). Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (24-h ABPM), cardiovascular risk factors [smoking, obesity (BMI), hyperlipidemia (HDL-C, LDL-C)] and HOMD [aortic stiffness (PWV), left ventricular diastolic dysfunction (E/Ea), cardiac hypertrophy (LVMI), coronary arteries microcirculation (CFR), carotid intima-media thickness (IMT), endothelial function (PBR5–25)] were estimated in each young patient before treatment initiation.

Results

Young patients' population was divided regarding smoking habit in Group A (smokers, n=89, age=42±7, 64 males) and Group B (non-smokers, n=127, age=42±6, 85 males). While increased LDL-C (p=0.002), decreased HDL-C levels (p<0.001) and augmented 24-h systolic and diastolic BP variability (p=0.001 and p=0.03, respectively) were revealed in Group A, no other differences were found between groups regarding BMI, 24-h ABPM and HMOD.

Conclusion

In early phases of arterial hypertension disease, young people have similar BP and HMOD burden despite the pre-existence of smoking habit and hyperlipidemia. Subsequently, there is still time for combined treatment of these three risk factors (smoking, hyperlipidemia, arterial hypertension) and prevention of future CV adverse events.

Funding Acknowledgement

Type of funding sources: None. Young hypertensives and smoking

May We Use Non-Invasive Indices of Aortic Stiffness and Endothelial Glycocalyx as Biomarkers for Idiopathic Pulmonary Artery Hypertension Follow-Up?

Idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) initial evaluation and follow-up, a rare and incurable disease if left untreated, is based on a multiparametric approach (functional status of the patient, biomarkers, hemodynamic parameters and imaging evaluation of right heart impairment). Arterial stiffness (AS) and endothelial glycocalyx are indices of systemic circulation. We present the 3-years follow-up of a female IPAH patient. We propose aortic stiffness and endothelial glycocalyx indices as non-invasive markers of either improvement or deterioration of IPAH disease.

Sex-related associations of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol with aortic stiffness and endothelial glycocalyx integrity in treated hypertensive patients

Smoking, a well-recognized major cardiovascular (CV) risk factor, impairs endothelial function and increases aortic stiffness which indicates subclinical organ damage in hypertensive patients. Loss of endothelial glycocalyx (EG) integrity, as part of the endothelium, represents endothelial dysfunction. The authors aimed to investigate the role of increased HDL cholesterol levels (HDL-C), which usually are considered protective against CV disease, in aortic stiffness and endothelial integrity in middle-aged treated hypertensive patients regarding smoking habit. The authors studied 193 treated hypertensive patients ≥40 years (mean age = 61±11 years, 58% females), divided in four groups regarding sex and smoking. Increased perfusion boundary region of the 5-9 μm diameter sublingual arterial microvessels (PBR_5-9 ) was measured as a noninvasive accurate index of reduced EG thickness. Aortic stiffness was estimated by carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (PWV). In the whole population, an inverse weak relationship was found between HDL-C and PWV (r = -.15, P = .03) and PBR_5-9 (ρ = -.15, P = .03). Moreover, HDL-C was negatively related to PBR_5-9 in males (r = -.29, P = .008) either smokers (r = -.35, P < .05) or non-smokers (r = -.27, P < .05) and PWV in female non-smokers (r = -.28, P = .009). In a multiple linear regression analysis, using age, weight, smoking, HDL-C, and LDL-C as independent variables, we found that HDL-C independently predicts PWV in the whole population (β = -.14, P = .02) and PBR_5-9 in male hypertensive patients (β = -.28, P = .01). Higher HDL-C levels are associated with reduced aortic stiffness in hypertensive patients, while they protect EG and subsequently endothelial function in middle-aged, treated hypertensive male patients (either smokers or not).

Are Unattended Blood Pressure Measurements Necessary in All Patients Visiting an Outpatient Cardiology Clinic?

INTRODUCTION

Unattended automatic office blood pressure (BP) measurement has given new evidence regarding treatment goals.

AIM

We aimed to explore any differences between unattended and conventional office BP measurements in different groups of patients visiting a European Society of Hypertension (ESH)  Excellence Centre.

METHODS

We performed two unattended (Microlife Watch BP Home) followed by a single attended (mercury sphygmomanometer) BP measurement in 310 patients (mean age 62 ± 15 years, 151 males, 64% hypertensives and 36% normotensive individuals) visiting our ESH Centre for a scheduled follow-up. Office BP < 140 mmHg (systolic) and < 90 mmHg (diastolic) were characterized as controlled or normal in hypertensives and normotensive individuals, respectively.

RESULTS

Attended BP (systolic/diastolic) was higher than unattended BP in total population (p < 0.001 and p = 0.02) and hypertensives (p < 0.001). In hypertensives, attended BP was higher than unattended BP regardless of age, smoking habit, obesity or controlled BP status but it was similar to unattended in diabetic patients. In normotensive individuals, attended BP was higher than unattended BP in older (p = 0.04), non-smoker (p = 0.002) and non-diabetic (p = 0.02) subjects. Finally, unattended BP was important for treatment decisions only in a small group of non-diabetic hypertensive patients (7%) whose unattended BP was controlled while attended BP was uncontrolled.

CONCLUSIONS

Unattended BP was lower than attended BP in the majority of hypertensive patients. However, it was useful only in a small percentage of non diabetic hypertensive patients in order to take appropriate treatment plan decisions.

HDL cholesterol levels and endothelial glycocalyx integrity in treated hypertensive patients

Endothelial dysfunction indicates target organ damage in hypertensive patients. The integrity of endothelial glycocalyx (EG) plays a vital role in vascular permeability, inflammation and elasticity, and finally to cardiovascular disease. The authors aimed to investigate the role of increased HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) levels, which usually are considered protective against cardiovascular disease, in EG integrity in older hypertensive patients. The authors studied 120 treated hypertensive patients older than 50 years were divided regarding HDL-C tertiles in group HDL_H (HDL-C ≥ 71 mg/dL, upper HDL-C tertile) and group HDL_L (HDL-C < 71 mg/dL, two lower HDL-C tertiles). Increased perfusion boundary region (PBR) of the sublingual arterial microvessels (ranging from 5 to 9 µm) using Sideview Darkfield imaging (Microscan, Glycocheck) was measured as a non-invasive accurate index of reduced EG thickness. PBR 5-9 was significantly decreased in group HDL_H (P = 0.04). In the whole population, HDL-C was inversely but moderately related to PBR 5-9 (r = -0.22, P = 0.01). In a multiple linear regression analysis model, using age, BMI, smoking habit, HDL-C, LDL-C, and office SBP, as independent variables, the authors found that BMI (β = 0.25, P = 0.006) independently predicted PBR 5-9 in the whole population. In older hypertensive patients, HDL-C ranging between 71 and 101 mg/dL might moderately protect EG and subsequently endothelial function. Future studies in several groups of low- or high-risk hypertensives are needed in order to evaluate the beneficial role of extremely elevated HDL-C regarding cardiovascular risk evaluation as well as endothelial glycocalyx as a novel index of target organ damage in essential hypertension.