Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure - copy and immediate recall (3 minutes): Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric populations

OBJECTIVE

To generate normative data for the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (ROCF) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations.

METHOD

The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the ROCF as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. The ROCF copy and immediate recall (3 minutes) scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses.

RESULTS

The final multiple linear regression models showed main effect for age on copy and immediate recall scores, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. Age2 affected ROCF copy score for all countries, except Puerto Rico; and ROCF immediate recall scores for all countries, except Chile, Guatemala, Honduras, Paraguay, and Puerto Rico. Models indicated that children whose parent(s) had a MLPE >12 years obtained higher scores compared to children whose parent(s) had a MLPE≤12 years for Chile, Puerto Rico, and Spain in the ROCF copy, and Paraguay and Spain for the ROCF immediate recall. Sex affected ROCF copy and immediate recall score for Chile and Puerto Rico with girls scoring higher than boys.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate approach to interpret the ROCF Test in pediatric populations.

Symbol Digit Modalities Test: Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population

OBJECTIVE

To generate normative data for the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations.

METHOD

The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the SDMT as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. SDMT scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses.

RESULTS

The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age in all countries, such that score increased linearly as a function of age. In addition, age2 had a significant effect in all countries, except in Honduras and Puerto Rico. Models indicated that children whose parent(s) had a MLPE >12 years of education obtained higher score compared to children whose parent(s) had a MLPE ≤12 years for Chile, Guatemala, Mexico, and Spain. Sex affected SDMT score for Paraguay and Spain.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate interpretation of the SDMT with pediatric populations.

Trail Making Test: Normative data for the Latin American Spanish-speaking pediatric population

OBJECTIVE

To generate normative data for the Trail Making Test (TMT) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations.

METHOD

The sample consisted of 3,337 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the TMT as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. The TMT-A and TMT-B scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses.

RESULTS

The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age on both scores, such that as children needed less time to complete the test while they become older. TMT-A scores were affected by age2 for all countries except, Cuba, Guatemala, and Puerto. TMT-B scores were affected by age2 for all countries except, Guatemala and Puerto Rico. Models indicated that children whose parent(s) had a MLPE >12 years of education needed less time to complete the test compared to children whose parent(s) had a MLPE ≤12 years for Mexico and Paraguay in TMT-A scores; and Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay, and Spain for TMT-B scores. Sex affected TMT-A scores for Chile, Cuba, Mexico, and Peru, in that boys needed less time to complete the test than girls. Sex did not affect TMT-B scores.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate approach to interpret the TMT in pediatric populations.

Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (M-WCST): Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population

OBJECTIVE

To generate normative data for the Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (M-WCST) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations.

METHOD

The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the M-WCST as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. Number of categories, perseverative errors, and total error scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses.

RESULTS

The final multiple linear regression models indicated main effects for age on all scores, such that the number of categories correct increased and total number of perseverative errors and total number of errors decrease linearly as a function of age. Age2 had a significant effect in Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, and Spain for numbers of categories; a significant effect for number of perseverative errors in Chile, Cuba, Mexico, and Spain; and a significant effect for number of total errors in Chile, Cuba, Peru, and Spain. Models showed an effect for MLPE in Cuba (total errors), Ecuador (categories and total errors), Mexico (all scores), Paraguay (perseverative errors and total error), and Spain (categories and total errors). Sex affected number of total errors for Ecuador.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate way to interpret the M-WCST with pediatric populations.

Stroop Color-Word Interference Test: Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population

OBJECTIVE

To generate normative data for the Stroop Word-Color Interference test in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations.

METHOD

The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the Stroop Word-Color Interference test as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. The Stroop Word, Stroop Color, Stroop Word-Color, and Stroop Interference scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses.

RESULTS

The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age on all scores, except on Stroop Interference for Guatemala, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. Age2 affected Stroop Word scores for all countries, Stroop Color scores for Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, and Spain; Stroop Word-Color scores for Ecuador, Mexico, and Paraguay; and Stroop Interference scores for Cuba, Guatemala, and Spain. MLPE affected Stroop Word scores for Chile, Mexico, and Puerto Rico; Stroop Color scores for Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Spain; Stroop Word-Color scores for Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Puerto Rico and Spain; and Stroop-Interference scores for Ecuador, Mexico, and Spain. Sex affected Stroop Word scores for Spain, Stroop Color scores for Mexico, and Stroop Interference for Honduras.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate approach to interpret the Stroop Word-Color Interference test in pediatric populations.

Self-regulation and treatment retention in cocaine dependent individuals: a longitudinal study

BACKGROUND

We aimed to explore the association between baseline executive functioning and treatment outcome in Therapeutic Communities (TCs).

METHODS

We used a longitudinal descriptive design: a baseline neuropsychological assessment was performed within the first 30 days of treatment in TCs. Once participants finished or abandoned treatment, the information about time of stay in treatment was computed for each individual. The study was conducted across six TCs located in the region of Andalusia (Spain): Cartaya, Almonte, Mijas, Los Palacios, La Línea, and Tarifa. Participants were 131 patients with cocaine dependence who initiated and finished treatment in TCs between January 2009 and December 2010 (2 years). Cognitive assessment was composed of general measures of executive functioning: Letter Number Sequencing (working memory) and Similarities (reasoning), and executive tasks sensitive to ventromedial prefrontal cortex dysfunction, including the Delis-Kaplan Stroop test (inhibition/cognitive switching), the Revised-Strategy Application Test (strategy application/multitasking), and the Iowa Gambling Task (decision-making). The outcome measure was retention, defined as time in TC treatment (number of days).

RESULTS

Poor executive functioning significantly predicted shorter treatment retention in cocaine dependent individuals on TC residential treatment (14% of explained variance). Reduced performance on the R-SAT, a multitasking test taxing the ability to develop and apply the best strategy to organize multiple sub-routine tasks in order to achieve a long-term goal, was the most powerful predictor of treatment retention.

CONCLUSIONS

Self-regulation deficits predict the capacity to remain in residential treatment among cocaine dependents.