De novo sequencing and analysis of the American ginseng root transcriptome using a GS FLX Titanium platform to discover putative genes involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis

Background

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) is one of the most widely used herbal remedies in the world. Its major bioactive constituents are the triterpene saponins known as ginsenosides. However, little is known about ginsenoside biosynthesis in American ginseng, especially the late steps of the pathway.

Results

In this study, a one-quarter 454 sequencing run produced 209,747 high-quality reads with an average sequence length of 427 bases. De novo assembly generated 31,088 unique sequences containing 16,592 contigs and 14,496 singletons. About 93.1% of the high-quality reads were assembled into contigs with an average 8-fold coverage. A total of 21,684 (69.8%) unique sequences were annotated by a BLAST similarity search against four public sequence databases, and 4,097 of the unique sequences were assigned to specific metabolic pathways by the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes. Based on the bioinformatic analysis described above, we found all of the known enzymes involved in ginsenoside backbone synthesis, starting from acetyl-CoA via the isoprenoid pathway. Additionally, a total of 150 cytochrome P450 (CYP450) and 235 glycosyltransferase unique sequences were found in the 454 cDNA library, some of which encode enzymes responsible for the conversion of the ginsenoside backbone into the various ginsenosides. Finally, one CYP450 and four UDP-glycosyltransferases were selected as the candidates most likely to be involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis through a methyl jasmonate (MeJA) inducibility experiment and tissue-specific expression pattern analysis based on a real-time PCR assay.

Conclusions

We demonstrated, with the assistance of the MeJA inducibility experiment and tissue-specific expression pattern analysis, that transcriptome analysis based on 454 pyrosequencing is a powerful tool for determining the genes encoding enzymes responsible for the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in non-model plants. Additionally, the expressed sequence tags (ESTs) and unique sequences from this study provide an important resource for the scientific community that is interested in the molecular genetics and functional genomics of American ginseng.

Pu-erh tea ameliorates obesity and modulates gut microbiota in high fat diet fed mice

Obesity is regarded to be associated with fat accumulation, chronic inflammation, and gut microbiota dysbiosis. Raw and ripened pu-erh tea extract (PETe) have the effect of reducing body weight gain and fat accumulation, which are associated with gut microbiota. However, little is known about the difference of raw and ripened PETe on the regulation of gut microbiota. Here, our results suggested that supplementation of raw and ripened PETe displayed similar anti-obesogenic effect in high fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity mice, by attenuating the body weight gain, fat accumulation, oxidative injury, and low-grade inflammation, improving the glucose tolerance, alleviating the metabolic endotoxemia, and regulating the mRNA and protein expression levels of the lipid metabolism-related genes. 16S rRNA sequencing of fecal samples indicated that raw and ripened PETe intervention displayed different regulatory effect on the HFD-induced gut microbiota dysbiosis at different taxonomic levels. The microbial diversity, the relative abundance of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes as well as F/B ratio were reversed more closer to normal by ripened PETe. Phylotypes of Bacteroidaceae, Ruminococcaceae, Lachnospiraceae, Muribaculaceae, and Rikenellaceae which are negatively correlated with obesity were enhanced notably by the intervention of ripened PETe, while Erysipelotrichaceae and Lactobacillaceae which have positive correlation with obesity were decreased dramatically. In addition, the treatment of ripened PETe had better effect on the increase of benefical Bacteroides, Alistipes, and Akkemansia and decrease of obesity associated Faecalibaculum and Erysipelatoclostridium (p < 0.05). These findings suggested that pu-erh tea especially ripened pu-erh tea could serve as a great candidate for alleviation of obesity in association with the modulation of gut microbiota.

Fucoidan Isolated from Saccharina japonica Inhibits LPS-Induced Inflammation in Macrophages via Blocking NF-κB, MAPK and JAK-STAT Pathways

Fucoidan has been reported to have a variety of biological activities. However, different algae species, extraction methods, harvesting seasons, and growth regions lead to the structural variation of fucoidan, which would affect the bioactivities of fucoidan. To date, the anti-inflammatory properties and the underlying mechanism of fucoidan from brown alga Saccharina japonica (S. japonica) remain limited. The aims of the present study were to investigate the structure, the anti-inflammatory properties, and the potential molecular mechanisms of fucoidan isolated from S. japonica (SF6) against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages. SF6 was characterized using high performance liquid gel permeation chromatography (HPGPC), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), and observed to be rich in fucose, galactose, and sulfate. Additionally, results showed that SF6 remarkably inhibited LPS-induced production of various inflammatory mediators and pro-inflammation cytokines, including nitric oxide (NO), NO synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-β (IL-β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6). A mechanism study showed that SF6 could effectively inhibit inflammatory responses through blocking LPS-induced inflammation pathways, including nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and Janus kinase (JAK)-2 and signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-1/3 pathways. These results suggested that SF6 has the potential to be developed as an anti-inflammatory agent applied in functional food.

Metals and the liver in Alzheimer's disease. An investigation of hepatic zinc, copper, cadmium, and metallothionein

Significant alterations of tissue metal levels have been reported in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Because the liver is intimately involved in metabolism and storage of metals, it may provide a useful site for study of these metals in AD. This study compares livers in AD and controls in their concentrations of zinc, copper, cadmium, and metallothionein, a metal-binding protein important in regulation of metal metabolism. Liver tissue was obtained from 17 patients with AD and 17 age- and sex-matched controls within 12 hours of death and stored at -70 degrees C. Neuropathologic confirmation of diagnosis was available in all cases. Liver homogenates (20%) were used for metal analysis by atomic absorption spectroscopy after wet digestion. Cytosolic metallothionein levels were quantitated by the cadmium or silver saturation method. A significant decline in body and liver weight was found in patients with AD, with no significant change in liver protein or DNA concentration. Total hepatic cadmium (P less than .001) and zinc (P less than .030) concentrations were significantly elevated in AD. The Sephadex G75 chromatographic profile was altered in AD with reduction in zinc bound to metallothionein fractions and increased binding to high molecular weight fractions. These data suggest that the metabolism of cadmium and zinc is altered in AD.

Preventive effects of North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium) on diabetic nephropathy

PURPOSE

Ginseng has been used as an herbal medicine and nutritional supplement in East Asia for thousands of years and gained popularity in the west because of its various pharmacological properties. Panax ginseng (Asian ginseng) and Panax quinquefolium (North American ginseng) both are reported to possess antihyperglycemic properties. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the preventive effects of North American ginseng on diabetic nephropathy (DN) and the underlying mechanisms of such effects.

METHODS

Models of both type 1 (C57BL/6 mice with STZ-induced diabetes) and type 2 diabetes (db/db mice) and age- and sex-matched controls were examined. Alcoholic ginseng root (200mg/kgbodywt, daily oral gavage) extract was administered to the diabetic mice (type 1 and type 2) for two or four months in order to evaluate its effects on DN.

RESULTS

Dysmetabolic state in the diabetic mice was significantly improved by ginseng treatment. In the kidneys of diabetic animals, ginseng significantly prevented oxidative stress and reduced the NF-κB (p65) levels. Diabetes-induced up-regulations of ECM proteins and vasoactive factors in the kidneys were significantly diminished by ginseng administration. Furthermore, albuminuria and mesangial expansion in the diabetic mice were prevented by ginseng therapy.

CONCLUSION

North American ginseng has preventive effects on DN and it works through a combination of mechanisms such as antihyperglycemic and antioxidant activities.

Fabrication of fluorescent labeled ginseng polysaccharide nanoparticles for bioimaging and their immunomodulatory activity on macrophage cell lines

Polysaccharides are a major active component of American ginseng root showing various biological activities including anti-carcinogenic, anti-aging, immunostimulatory and antioxidant effects. Although their biological activity has been reported by several groups, no research has explored their cellular uptake and biodistribution, owing to the lack of suitable detection techniques in living cells. This work examines a novel, simple and efficient fluorescent labeling procedure of ginseng polysaccharides (PS), in order to examine their cellular distribution using confocal microscopy. This procedure utilized a one-pot strategy with fluorescein-5-thiosemicarbazide (FTSC) to introduce a thiosemicarbazide group onto the aldehyde group at the reducing saccharide end to form a stable amino derivative through reductive amination. This polysaccharide-FTSC derivative was then characterized by GPC, UV, FTIR, photoluminescence and fluorescence microscopy to confirm attachment and any structural changes. The results demonstrated that the labeled ginseng PS nanostructure showed high fluorescence with minimal changes in PS molecular weight. The labeled PS exhibited almost no cytotoxicity effect against tumor induced macrophage cell lines (RAW 264.7) while retaining high immunostimulating activity similar to the non-labeled ginseng PS. Therefore, the developed approach provides a convenient and highly efficient fluorescent labeling procedure for understanding the mechanism of ginseng PS uptake in macrophage cell lines.

North American ginseng protects the heart from ischemia and reperfusion injury via upregulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase

Emerging evidence suggests ginseng has therapeutic potential in cardiovascular disease. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) in the cardioprotective effects of ginseng during myocardial ischemia and reperfusion (I/R). Treatment with ginseng extract significantly increased Akt phosphorylation and eNOS protein levels in cultured neonatal cardiomyocytes. Upregulation of eNOS was blocked by LY294002, a PI3-kinase inhibitor, suggesting a PI3-kinase/Akt-dependent mechanism. To simulate I/R, cultured neonatal cardiomyocytes from eNOS(-/-) and wild-type (WT) mice were subjected to anoxia and reoxygenation (A/R). Ginseng treatment inhibited A/R-induced apoptosis in WT, but not in either eNOS(-/-) cardiomyocytes or WT cardiomyocytes treated with LY294002. To further study the cardioprotective effects of ginseng in vivo, WT and eNOS(-/-) mice were pretreated with ginseng extract (50mg/kg/day, oral gavage) for 7 days before they were subjected to myocardial I/R. Treatment with ginseng significantly increased Akt phosphorylation and eNOS protein levels in the myocardium. Furthermore, ginseng-induced myocardial eNOS expression was inhibited by LY294002. Strikingly, ginseng treatment significantly decreased infarct size and myocardial apoptosis following I/R in WT mice, but not in either eNOS(-/-) mice or WT mice treated with LY294002. We conclude that ginseng treatment protects the heart from I/R injury via upregulation of eNOS expression. Our study suggests that ginseng may serve as a potential therapeutic agent to limit myocardial I/R injury.

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) prevents glucose-induced oxidative stress and associated endothelial abnormalities

PURPOSE

Ginseng (Araliaceae), demonstrates widespread biological effects because of its purported antioxidant and other properties. The present study was undertaken to investigate the effects of American ginseng root extract on glucose-induced oxidative stress and associated oxidative damage to human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs).

METHODS

Following pretreatment with various concentrations of ginseng (alcoholic extract), HUVECs were incubated with various concentrations of d-glucose ranging from 5 to 25mmol/l for 24h. l-Glucose was used at a concentration of 25mmol/l as a control.

RESULTS

Glucose-induced oxidative stress detected by intracellular reactive oxygen species accumulation, superoxide anion generation and DNA damage in HUVECs were significantly prevented by ginseng. Treatment of HUVECs with ginseng further led to significant prevention of glucose-induced NF-κB activation. Glucose-induced increase in fibronectin (FN), EDB(+)FN (a splice variant of FN), endothelin-1 (ET-1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) mRNAs and protein levels were also prevented by ginseng treatment.

CONCLUSION

These data indicate that American ginseng prevented glucose-induced damage in the HUVECs through its antioxidant properties.

Antioxidant effect of zinc and zinc-metallothionein in the acute cytotoxicity of hydrogen peroxide in Ehrlich ascites tumour cells

This study was concerned with the role of zinc (Zn) and zinc-metallothionein (Zn-MT) in oxidative stress. Hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative injury was examined in Ehrlich ascites tumour cells isolated from control host mice, mice pretreated with 10 mg/kg ZnSO4 (i.p.) to increase cellular Zn/Zn-MT levels, and mice exposed to Zn-deficient diet to reduce the cellular Zn/Zn-MT levels. The results of the present study showed that Ehrlich cells with seven-fold differences in Zn-MT concentrations could be obtained by manipulating the Zn status of host mice and that high Zn and Zn-MT levels can make Ehrlich cells more resistant to H2O2-induced oxidative injury (cell viability, lipid peroxidation, [Ca2+]i) while cells with reduced Zn/Zn-MT levels were more susceptible to this treatment. H2O2 treatment resulted in oxidation of MT thiolate groups and loss of its metal binding capacity with translocation of Zn released from oxidized MT to other cellular sites. Preincubation of Ehrlich cells with ZnSO4 in vitro also conferred some degree of resistance to H2O2 toxicity, suggesting the inherent antioxidative property of Zn ions. These data suggested that Zn-MT can be considered as an antioxidant by virtue of its thiolate groups and its Zn ions that are released in the presence of oxidative stress.

Alcohol extract of North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) reduces fatty liver, dyslipidemia, and other complications of metabolic syndrome in a mouse model

We investigated whether North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) could reduce development of the metabolic syndrome phenotype in a mouse model (ETKO) of the disease. Young ETKO mice have no disease but similar to humans start to develop the fatty liver, hypertriglyceridemia, obesity, and insulin resistance at 25-30 weeks of age, and the disease continues to progress with ageing. ETKO mice were orally given an ethanol extract of ginseng roots at 4 and 32 weeks of age. Treatments with ginseng eliminated the ETKO fatty liver, reduced hepatic and intestinal lipoprotein secretion, and reduced the level of circulating lipids. Improvements by ginseng treatments were manifested as a reduction in the expression of genes involved in the regulation of fatty acid and triglyceride (fat) synthesis and secretion by the lipoproteins on one hand, and the stimulation of fatty acid oxidation and triglyceride degradation by lipolysis on the other hand. These processes altogether improved glucose, fatty acid, and triglyceride metabolism, reduced liver fat load, and reversed the progression of metabolic syndrome. These data confirm that treatments with North American ginseng could alleviate metabolic syndrome through the maintenance of a better balance between glucose and fatty acid metabolism, lipoprotein secretion, and energy homeostasis in disease-prone states.

Prooxidative effect of copper–metallothionein in the acute cytotoxicity of hydrogen peroxide in Ehrlich ascites tumour cells

This study was concerned with the role of copper (Cu) and Cu-metallothionein (Cu-MT) in oxidative stress. Hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2))-induced oxidative injury was examined in Ehrlich ascites tumour cells isolated from host mice pretreated with 0, 1 or 2mg of CuSO(4) (ip) 24h earlier. Control Ehrlich cells contained low levels of Cu and Cu treatment produced dose-related increases in cellular Cu and Cu-MT levels and corresponding increases in sensitivity to oxidative toxicity of H(2)O(2) (LC(50), cell blebbing, lipid peroxidation, GSH depletion, and increase in intracellular free [Ca(2+)](i)). Hydrogen peroxide treatment also resulted in the oxidation of MT thiolates, reduction in the binding of Cu to MT resulting in translocation of Cu to other subcellular sites. d-penicillamine, a Cu-chelating agent, obliterated the sensitization effect of Cu-pretreatment and reduced the redistribution of MT-bound Cu, suggesting the participation of Cu ions derived from MT in promoting oxidant stress. Additional experiments with desferoxamine and mannitol have revealed the involvement of a Cu-dependent Fenton reaction in the mediation of the prooxidative effect of Cu-MT. These data suggest that cells with high levels of Cu-MT may be particularly susceptible to oxidative stress.

Transdermal nanotherapeutics: Panax quinquefolium polysaccharide nanoparticles attenuate UVB-induced skin cancer

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is known to cause an imbalance of the endogenous antioxidant system leading to an increase in skin cancer. Panax quinquefolium (American ginseng) polysaccharides (GPS) can inhibit such an imbalance due to its anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. The aim of this study was to investigate the therapeutic effects of topical formulations containing GPS nanoparticles (NPs) to inhibit UVB induced oxidative damage and skin cancer. Photoaging was conducted under UVB irradiation with a dose of 300 mJ/cm2 on SKH1 hairless mice. The treatment groups (n = 5) were as follows: sham control, native GPS, GPS NPs and fluorescent labeled GPS NPs. To compare the photoprotective performance, the topical formulations were applied before and after UVB induction (pre-treatment and post-treatment), followed by sacrificing the animals. Then, skin and blood samples were collected, and inflammatory cytokines production was measured using ELISA. Compared to the sham control, GPS NPs pre-treated mice skin and blood samples exhibited a significant lowering in all cytokine production. In addition, skin histology analysis showed that pre-treatment of GPS NPs prevented epidermal damage and proliferation. The results support that topical formulation containing GPS NPs can inhibit UVB induced oxidative damage and skin cancer.

Demonstration of c-erbB-2 oncogene overexpression in salivary gland neoplasms by in situ hybridization

The level of c-erbB-2 cellular mRNA in 18 salivary gland tumours and in 7 normal salivary glands was determined by in situ hybridization using [35S] labelled RNA probes. Computer assisted quantitation of the autoradiographic signal indicated a significantly higher c-erbB-2 expression in the tumour group (22.64 grains per cell +/- 3.79; 95% CI) as compared to the non-neoplastic salivary gland tissue (4.11 +/- 0.90; 95% CI). The c-erbB-2 expression as measured by grain counts per cell for the pleomorphic adenomas (16.29 +/- 1.87; 95% CI), mucoepidermoid carcinomas (31.52 +/- 0.08; 95% CI) and the acinic cell carcinomas (44.24 +/- 17.11; 95% CI) were significantly greater than the expression for the normal group. The acinic cell carcinomas exhibited the greatest level of expression. As observed at the individual cell level, the autoradiographic signal was distributed uniformly in the neoplastic tissues, regardless of the cell type. This study confirms the hypothesis that the c-erbB-2 oncogene is overexpressed at the mRNA level in salivary gland tumours.

American ginseng acutely regulates contractile function of rat heart

Chronic ginseng treatments have been purported to improve cardiac performance. However reports of acute administration of ginseng on cardiovascular function remain controversial and potential mechanisms are not clear. In this study, we examined the effects of acute North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) administration on rat cardiac contractile function by using electrocardiogram (ECG), non-invasive blood pressure (BP) measurement, and Langendorff isolated, spontaneously beating, perfused heart measurements (LP). Eight-week old male Sprague–Dawley rats (n = 8 per group) were gavaged with a single dose of water-soluble American ginseng at 300 mg/kg body weight. Heart rate (HR) and BP were measured prior to and at 1 and 24 h after gavaging (ECG and BP). Additional groups were used for each time point for Langendorff measurements. HR was significantly decreased (ECG: 1 h: 6 ± 0.2%, 24 h: 8 ± 0.3%; BP: 1 h: 8.8 ± 0.2%, 24 h: 13 ± 0.4% and LP: 1 h: 22 ± 0.4%, 24 h: 19 ± 0.4%) in rats treated with water-soluble ginseng compared with pre or control measures. An initial marked decrease in left ventricular developed pressure was observed in LP hearts but BP changes were not observed in BP group. A direct inhibitory effect of North American ginseng was observed on cardiac contractile function in LP rats and on fluorescence measurement of intracellular calcium transient in freshly isolated cardiac myocytes when exposed to ginseng (1 and 10 μg/ml). Collectively these data present evidence of depressed cardiac contractile function by acute administration of North American ginseng in rat. This acute reduction in cardiac contractile function appears to be intrinsic to the myocardium.

North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) suppresses β-adrenergic-dependent signalling, hypertrophy, and cardiac dysfunction

There is increasing evidence for a beneficial effect of ginseng on cardiac pathology. Here, we determined whether North American ginseng can modulate the deleterious effects of the β-adrenoceptor agonist isoproterenol on cardiac hypertrophy and function using in vitro and in vivo approaches. Isoproterenol was administered for 2 weeks at either 25 mg/kg per day or 50 mg/kg per day (ISO25 or ISO50) via a subcutaneously implanted osmotic mini-pump to either control rats or those receiving ginseng (0.9 g/L in the drinking water ad libitum). Isoproterenol produced time- and dose-dependent left ventricular dysfunction, although these effects were attenuated by ginseng. Improved cardiac functions were associated with reduced heart masses, as well as prevention in the upregulation of the hypertrophy-related fetal gene expression. Lung masses were similarly attenuated, suggesting reduced pulmonary congestion. In in vitro studies, ginseng (10 μg/mL) completely suppressed the hypertrophic response to 1 μmol/L isoproterenol in terms of myocyte surface area, as well as reduction in the upregulation of fetal gene expression. These effects were associated with attenuation in both protein kinase A and cAMP response element-binding protein phosphorylation. Ginseng attenuates adverse cardiac adrenergic responses and, therefore, may be an effective therapy to reduce hypertrophy and heart failure associated with excessive catecholamine production.

Analysis of c-erbB-2 amplification in salivary gland tumours by differential polymerase chain reaction

DNA samples extracted from 22 normal salivary glands, 38 salivary pleomorphic adenomas and 20 other salivary gland neoplasms were screened for amplification of the c-erbB-2 oncogene by a differential polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The samples were PCR amplified with primers specific for the c-erbB-2 oncogene and for a reference gene (interferon-gamma). A breast carcinoma cell line SKBR-3 known to contain c-erbB-2 amplification was used as positive control. Following gel electrophoresis, the intensity of the amplified DNA bands was determined by laser densitometry and the level of amplification of the c-erbB-2 oncogene was assessed from the intensity of the c-erbB-2 specific band relative to that of the interferon-gamma band. Of all the tumours detected, only the two poorly differentiated adenocarcinomas, two of the pleomorphic adenomas and one of the Warthin's tumours showed gene amplification at levels comparable to the breast carcinoma cell line. None of the normal salivary gland tissues was found to have amplification. Within the group of pleomorphic adenomas the average level of amplification was not significantly different from that observed in the normal salivary gland, or in total genomic DNA from unrelated tissue (P < or = 0.001, determined by a general linear model of statistical analysis). These results indicate that amplification of the c-erbB-2 oncogene is infrequent in salivary neoplasia. Thus, gene amplification alone cannot account for the high prevalence of c-erbB-2 overexpression demonstrated previously in salivary gland tumours. When present, c-erbB-2 amplification may be associated with a more aggressive behaviour.

Isolation and immunosuppressive effects of 6″-O-acetylginsenoside Rb1 extracted from North American ginseng

Extraction of medicinally active components from natural health products has become an emerging source for drug discovery. Of particular interest for this work was the finding and testing of a new ginsenoside from North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius). In the present study, a large amount of 6″-O-acetylginsenoside Rb1, compound 7, was found using ultrasonic extraction of North American ginseng with DMSO aqueous solution. This new ginsenoside was well identified with MS, FTIR, and 1D (1H and 13C) and 2D (gCOSY, gHSQC, and gHMBC) NMR. Subsequent bioassay experiments confirmed that compound 7 demonstrated an additional immunosuppressive activity towards inhibiting the production of nitric oxide and tumor necrosis factor alpha in lipopolysaccharide-induced macrophage cells in a dose-dependent manner using murine macrophages. This new ginsenoside is encouraging for the further exploration and development of novel drugs.

Angiogenic Rg1 /Sr-Doped TiO2 Nanowire/Poly(Propylene Fumarate) Bone Cement Composites

A new approach is provided for preparing radiopaque and angiogenic poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) bone cements by integrating Sr-doped n-TiO₂ nanowires and ginsenoside Rg1 suitable for treating osteonecrosis. High aspect ratio radiopaque TiO₂ -nanowires are synthesized by strontium doping in supercritical CO₂ for the first time, showing a new phase, SrTiO₃ . PPF is synthesized using a transesterification method by reacting diethyl fumarate and propylene glycol, then functionalized using maleic anhydride to produce terminal carboxyl groups, which are subsequently linked to the nanowires. The strong interfacial adhesion between functionalized PPF and nanowires is examined by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, thermal analysis, and mechanical testing. An angiogenic modulator, ginsenoside Rg₁ , is integrated into the bone cement formulation with the mechanical properties, radiopacity, drug release, and angiogenesis behavior of the formed composites explored. The results show superior radiopacity and excellent release of ginsenoside Rg₁ in vitro, as well as a dose-dependent increase in the branching point numbers. The present study suggests this new methodology provides sufficient mechanical properties, radiopacity, and angiogenic activity to be suitable for cementation of necrotic bone.

Effect of ginseng therapy on diabetes and its chronic complications: lessons learned

Ginseng played a significant role in the management of diabetes in China and in other Asian countries for a long period of time. It has a large number of pharmacological properties and is relatively free from adverse effects. As a part of Ontario Ginseng Research and Innovation Consortium, we investigated the effects of ginseng extract on diabetes and its complications. We demonstrated large number of beneficial effects of ginseng therapy and showed that these effects are possibly mediated through its antioxidant properties. Thus ginseng may lend itself as a relatively safe and inexpensive adjuvant treatment for diabetes and chronic diabetic complications.

Differential distribution of intravenous curcumin formulations in the rat brain

BACKGROUND

The neuropathic side-effects of trauma, stroke or therapeutic radiation of the brain for life-threatening neoplastic diseases are the result of damage to normal tissues resulting in defects in cognition and memory. Based upon published preclinical data of curcumin activity application of parenteral curcumin formulations may prove to be to be promising chemotherapy for disorders following neuropathic insults. Studies in in vitro and animal models suggest curcumin may be an effective remediative agent for brain damage. The initial steps in curcumin development for clinical applications to neuropathic disorders are formulating it for intravenous administration, determining the formulated product passes the blood-brain barrier and reaches therapeutic amounts in damaged areas in the brain with tolerable safety. Following intravenous administration of liposomal curcumin, polymeric nanocurcumin and polylactic glycolic acid co-polymer (PLGA)-curcumin in rats, these formulations were observed to cross the blood-brain barrier using a sensitive HPLC assay. All three formulations localized in specific sites in the brain without observable adverse events. One hour following intravenous injection of 5 mg/kg nanocurcumin, or 20 mg/kg PLGA-curcumin, or liposomal curcumin, up to 0.5% of the injected material localized in the brain stem, the striatum, and the hippocampus with varied accumulation and clearance rates.

CONCLUSION

These data indicate that curcumin does localize in putative damaged brain tissues and suggest therapeutic trials be explored with all three formulations in animal models with pre- and post traumatic states.

c-fos oncogene underexpression in salivary gland tumors as measured by in situ hybridization

Tissue from 35 salivary gland tumors and 14 normal salivary glands was analyzed by in situ hybridization and computer-assisted morphometry for the expression of the c-fos oncogene. The normal salivary gland tissues were found to express c-fos focally, mainly in the acinar secretory cells. The majority of the cells in the normal tissues showed a high level of expression (47.74 +/- 5.31% of cells had 46 to 60 grains per cell and another 45.79 +/- 2.18% showed > 60 grains per cell). All the tumors examined exhibited a relatively low, uniform distribution of c-fos expression. For example, in the poorly differentiated adenocarcinomas, 96.83 +/- 04% of the cells were found to have < 15 grains per cell. A general linear model for multivariate analysis showed a significant difference between the various tumor types and the normal salivary gland tissues (P = 0.0001). These data support the hypothesis that salivary gland tumors belong to a group of epithelial neoplasias in which the loss of cellular differentiation is linked with underexpression of the c-fos oncogene.