Efficient phagocytosis of periodontopathogens by neutrophils requires plasma factors, platelets and TLR2

BACKGROUND

Periodontitis represents a chronic infection of supportive dental tissues by distinct gram-negative bacteria. It is characterized by chronic and local inflammation as well as transient bacteremia with frequently occurring infections at distant sites.

OBJECTIVES

The present work aimed to clarify the role of platelets and plasma factors in neutrophil interactions with the periodontopathogens A. actinomycetemcomitans and P. gingivalis.

METHODS

Phagocytosis, cell-cell interactions and activation of platelets and neutrophils in response to periodontopathogens were analyzed by flow cytometry, confocal microscopy and bacteria survival assay. Plasma factors, platelet signaling pathways and receptors involved in platelet-neutrophil-bacteria interactions were determined. The role of platelet and neutrophil TLR2 in phagocytosis was further evaluated in a murine TLR2 knockout model.

RESULTS

In the presence of plasma neutrophil-mediated clearance of periodontopathogens is doubled due to opsonisation of bacteria. Platelets, which become activated by periodontopathogens, further enhance clearance of bacteria by 20%, via direct interaction with neutrophils. Plasma factors (e.g. CD14) are required for platelet activation, which is mainly TLR2 dependent and results in PI3K/Akt activation. In a murine TLR2 knockout model we prove that platelet TLR2 is important for formation of platelet-neutrophil aggregates and enhanced phagocytosis of periodontopathogens. In contrast, neutrophil TLR2 is not involved in platelet-neutrophil aggregate formation but is required for efficient phagocytosis.

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that efficient elimination of periodontopathogens by neutrophils involves a complex interplay of plasma factors as well as platelets and requires functional TLR2. By enhancing neutrophil activation platelets contribute to immune defense but may also foster inflammation.

Age intrinsic loss of telomere protection via TRF1 reduction in endothelial cells

Aging is a major factor predisposing for multiple diseases. Telomeres at the ends of chromosomes protect the integrity of chromosomal DNA. A specialized six-protein complex termed shelterin protects the telomere from unwanted interaction with DNA damage pathways. The aim of our study was to evaluate the integrity of telomeres and the stability of telomere protection during aging in endothelial cells (EC). We describe that aging EC can be characterized by an increased cell size (40%, p=0.02) and increased expression of PAI 1 (4 fold, p=0.02), MCP1 (10 fold, p=0.001) and GMCSF (15 fold, p=0.004). Telomeric state in aging cells is defined by an increased telomere oxidation (27%, p=0.01), reduced telomere length (62%, p=0.02), and increased DNA damage foci formation (5% in young EC versus 16% in aged EC, p=0.003). This telomeric dysfunction is accompanied by a reduction in the shelterin component TRF1 (33% mRNA, p=0.001; 24% protein, p=0.007). Overexpression of TRF1 in aging EC reduced telomere-associated DNA damage foci to 5% (p=0.02) and reduced expression levels of MCP1 (18% reduction, p=0.008). Aged EC have increased telomere damage and an intrinsic loss of telomere protection. Reestablishing telomere integrity could therefore be a target for rejuvenating endothelial cell function.

Cloudy with a Chance of Insights: Context Dependent Gene Regulation and Implications for Evolutionary Studies

Research in various fields of evolutionary biology has shown that divergence in gene expression is a key driver for phenotypic evolution. An exceptional contribution of cis-regulatory divergence has been found to contribute to morphological diversification. In the light of these findings, the analysis of genome-wide expression data has become one of the central tools to link genotype and phenotype information on a more mechanistic level. However, in many studies, especially if general conclusions are drawn from such data, a key feature of gene regulation is often neglected. With our article, we want to raise awareness that gene regulation and thus gene expression is highly context dependent. Genes show tissue- and stage-specific expression. We argue that the regulatory context must be considered in comparative expression studies.

Variation in Pleiotropic Hub Gene Expression Is Associated with Interspecific Differences in Head Shape and Eye Size in Drosophila

Revealing the mechanisms underlying the breathtaking morphological diversity observed in nature is a major challenge in Biology. It has been established that recurrent mutations in hotspot genes cause the repeated evolution of morphological traits, such as body pigmentation or the gain and loss of structures. To date, however, it remains elusive whether hotspot genes contribute to natural variation in the size and shape of organs. As natural variation in head morphology is pervasive in Drosophila, we studied the molecular and developmental basis of differences in compound eye size and head shape in two closely related Drosophila species. We show differences in the progression of retinal differentiation between species and we applied comparative transcriptomics and chromatin accessibility data to identify the GATA transcription factor Pannier (Pnr) as central factor associated with these differences. Although the genetic manipulation of Pnr affected multiple aspects of dorsal head development, the effect of natural variation is restricted to a subset of the phenotypic space. We present data suggesting that this developmental constraint is caused by the coevolution of expression of pnr and its cofactor u-shaped (ush). We propose that natural variation in expression or function of highly connected developmental regulators with pleiotropic functions is a major driver for morphological evolution and we discuss implications on gene regulatory network evolution. In comparison to previous findings, our data strongly suggest that evolutionary hotspots are not the only contributors to the repeated evolution of eye size and head shape in Drosophila.

Transcriptome of pleuropodia from locust embryos supports that these organs produce enzymes enabling the larva to hatch

Background

Pleuropodia are limb-derived glandular organs that transiently appear on the first abdominal segment in embryos of insects from majority of “orders”. They are missing in the genetic model Drosophila and little is known about them. Experiments carried out on orthopteran insects 80 years ago indicated that the pleuropodia secrete a “hatching enzyme” that digests the serosal cuticle to enable the larva to hatch, but evidence by state-of-the-art molecular methods is missing.

Results

We used high-throughput RNA-sequencing to identify the genes expressed in the pleuropodia of the locust Schistocerca gregaria (Orthoptera). First, using transmission electron microscopy we studied the development of the pleuropodia during 11 stages of the locust embryogenesis. We show that the glandular cells differentiate and start secreting just before the definitive dorsal closure of the embryo and the secretion granules outside the cells become more abundant prior to hatching. Next, we generated a comprehensive embryonic reference transcriptome for the locust and used it to study genome wide gene expression across ten morphologicaly defined stages of the pleuropodia. We show that when the pleuropodia have morphological markers of functional organs and produce secretion, they are primarily enriched in transcripts associated with transport functions. They express genes encoding enzymes capable of digesting cuticular protein and chitin. These include the potent cuticulo-lytic Chitinase 5, whose transcript rises just before hatching. Unexpected finding was the enrichment in transcripts for immunity-related enzymes. This indicates that the pleuropodia are equipped with epithelial immunity similarly as barrier epithelia in postembryonic stages.

Conclusions

These data provide transcriptomic support for the historic hypothesis that pleuropodia produce cuticle-degrading enzymes and function in hatching. They may also have other functions, such as facilitation of embryonic immune defense. By the genes that they express the pleuropodia are specialized embryonic organs and apparently an important though neglected part of insect physiology.

Heterochrony in orthodenticle expression is associated with ommatidial size variation between Drosophila species

BACKGROUND

The compound eyes of insects exhibit extensive variation in ommatidia number and size, which affects how they see and underlies adaptations in their vision to different environments and lifestyles. However, very little is known about the genetic and developmental bases of differences in eye size. We previously showed that the larger eyes of Drosophila mauritiana compared to D. simulans are generally caused by differences in ommatidia size rather than number. Furthermore, we identified an X-linked chromosomal region in D. mauritiana that results in larger eyes when introgressed into D. simulans.

RESULTS

Here, we used a combination of fine-scale mapping and gene expression analysis to further investigate positional candidate genes on the X chromosome. We found earlier expression of orthodenticle (otd) during ommatidial maturation in D. mauritiana than in D. simulans, and we show that this gene is required for the correct organisation and size of ommatidia in D. melanogaster. We discovered that the activity of an otd eye enhancer is consistent with the difference in the expression of this gene between species, with the D. mauritiana enhancer sequence driving earlier expression than that of D. simulans. When otd expression is driven prematurely during D. melanogaster eye development, the ommatidia grow larger, supporting a possible role for the timing of otd expression in regulating ommatidial size. We also identified potential direct targets of Otd that are differentially expressed between D. mauritiana and D. simulans during ommatidial maturation.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our results suggest that differential timing of otd expression may contribute to natural variation in ommatidia size between D. mauritiana and D. simulans, which provides new insights into the mechanisms underlying the regulation and evolution of compound eye size in insects.