Dairy matrix effects: response to consumption of dairy fat differs when eaten within the cheese matrix-a randomized controlled trial

Background

Dairy fat consumed as cheese has different effects on blood lipids than that consumed as butter. It is unknown whether the effect is specific to fat interaction with other cheese nutrients (calcium, casein proteins), or to the cheese matrix itself.

Objective

We aimed to test the effect of 6 wk daily consumption of ∼40 g dairy fat, eaten within macronutrient-matched food matrices, on markers of metabolic health, in overweight adults aged ≥50 y.

Design

The study was a 6-wk randomized parallel intervention; 164 volunteers (75 men) received ∼40 g of dairy fat/d, in 1 of 4 treatments: (A) 120 g full-fat Irish cheddar cheese (FFCC) (n = 46); (B) 120 g reduced-fat Irish cheddar cheese + butter (21 g) (RFC + B) (n = 45); (C) butter (49 g), calcium caseinate powder (30 g), and Ca supplement (CaCO3) (500 mg) (BCC) (n = 42); or (D) 120 g FFCC, for 6 wk (as per A) (n = 31). Group D first completed a 6-wk "run-in" period, where they excluded all dietary cheese before commencing the intervention.

Results

There was no difference in anthropometry, fasting glucose, or insulin between the groups at pre- or postintervention. However, a stepwise-matrix effect was observed between the groups for total cholesterol (TC) (P = 0.033) and LDL cholesterol (P = 0.026), with significantly lower postintervention TC (mean ± SD) (5.23 ± 0.88 mmol/L) and LDL cholesterol (2.97 ± 0.67 mmol/L) when all of the fat was contained within the cheese matrix (Group A), compared with Group C when it was not (TC: 5.57 ± 0.86 mmol/L; LDL cholesterol: 3.43 ± 0.78 mmol/L).

Conclusion

Dairy fat, eaten in the form of cheese, appears to differently affect blood lipids compared with the same constituents eaten in different matrices, with significantly lower total cholesterol observed when all nutrients are consumed within a cheese matrix This trial was registered at ISRCTN as ISRCTN86731958.

Regional differences in suprathreshold intensity for bitter and umami stimuli

The sense of taste is often referred to as a 'nutritional gatekeeper', thought to have evolved to indicate energy sources and prevent ingestion of potential toxins. Fungiform papillae are structures on the anterior tongue in which taste buds are situated. They are concentrated at the tongue's tip and they can provide a useful estimate of overall taste bud density for taste research. Some reports suggest taste perception may differ subtly across tongue regions, irrespective of FP number. Other data show an association between taste intensity perception for the bitter compound 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) and FP density. However, contradictions exist in the literature, with more recent, larger studies suggesting little or no association between FP number and perceived taste intensity. Much research has examined the relation between FP density and PROP perception, while other tastes have been less thoroughly studied. Here, in a cohort of mainly Caucasian individuals, aged 18-45, recruited from the campus of a large rural university, we examined regional and whole-mouth taste intensities, and FP density using an updated method of a digital still photography method first described in 2005. We found regional differences in suprathreshold intensity. Although all taste sensations were experienced all over the tongue, once again disproving the mythical tongue map, we also observed bitter and umami taste perception to be significantly greater on the posterior tongue than on the anterior tongue. In contrast, there were no regional differences observed for sweet, salty or sour tastes. The relation of FP density to whole-mouth intensity of 6-n-propylthiouracil, and to the intensity of saltiness of NaCl, sweetness from sucrose or from Acesulfame-K, bitterness of quinine, or burning from capsaicin delivered to different regions of the tongue are also discussed.

Quinine Bitterness and Grapefruit Liking Associate with Allelic Variants in TAS2R31

Multiple psychophysical gene-association studies suggest a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) within the bitter receptor gene TAS2R19 on chromosome 12 may be functional. Previously, the Arg299Cys SNP (rs10772420) has been associated with differential bitterness of quinine and differential liking for grapefruit juice. However, quinine does not activate TAS2R19 in vitro; likewise, limonin and naringin, bitter compounds in grapefruit, do not activate TAS2R19 in vitro. Here, we examined quinine bitterness (whole-mouth swish-and-spit stimuli and regionally delivered quinine across 4 loci) and remembered liking for grapefruit juice to test whether they associate with SNPs in another nearby gene, TASR2R31. We observed SNP-phenotype associations between whole-mouth quinine bitterness and self-reported liking for grapefruit juice with SNPs in TAS2R31, and regional quinine bitterness followed a similar trend, but did not reach significance. Present data provide independent replication of prior associations reported for TAS2R19. However, we also observed strong linkage disequilibrium (LD) between TAS2R19 and TAS2R31 SNPs. When present data are considered in light of existing functional expression data, this suggests phenotypic associations reported previously for rs10772420 may potentially be due to LD between this SNP and polymorphism(s) in, or closer to, TAS2R31. If confirmed, this would reduce the number of TAS2Rs with putatively functional polymorphisms to 5.

Bitter taste perception and dietary intake patterns in irish children

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Variations in bitter receptor gene TAS2R38 affect the perception of bitter-tasting compound 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP). The perception of PROP has been associated, in some reports, with the perception of fat and sweet tastes, and various food preferences and intakes. The aim was to investigate nutrient intakes and food patterns in a group of Irish children, using K-means cluster analysis, and compare these with TAS2R38 genotype and PROP taster status.

METHODS

Dietary intake was measured via a 3-day diet history in 483 children aged 7-13 years. Children were genotyped for TAS2R38 variation, and PROP taster status was assessed. Anthropometric and socioeconomic data were also obtained.

RESULTS

No differences were observed in macronutrient, micronutrient, or food group consumption between the TAS2R38 genotype and PROP taster groups. K-means cluster analysis identified two distinct dietary patterns, termed 'more healthful' and 'less healthful' clusters. The clusters did not differ in frequencies of TAS2R38 genotype nor PROP taster status groups, suggesting that dietary patterns are not influenced by bitter taste perception.

CONCLUSION

Bitterness perception, as measured by either TAS2R38 genotype or PROP taster status, does not appear to exert a significant effect on patterns of dietary intakes.

Conserved role for 14-3-3epsilon downstream of type I TGFbeta receptors

Schistosoma mansoni receptor kinase-1 (SmRK1) is a divergent type I transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta) receptor on the surface of adult parasites. Using the intracellular domain of SmRK1 as bait in a yeast two-hybrid screen we identified an interaction with S. mansoni 14-3-3epsilon. The interaction which is phosphorylation-dependent is not specific to schistosomes since 14-3-3epsilon also binds to TbetaRI, the human type I TGFbeta receptor. 14-3-3epsilon enhances TGFbeta-mediated signaling by TbetaRI and is the first TbetaRI-interacting non-Smad protein identified that positively regulates this receptor. The interaction of 14-3-3epsilon with schistosome and human TbetaRI suggests a conserved, but previously unappreciated, role for this protein in TGFbeta signaling pathways.

Sweet and Umami Taste Perception Differs with Habitual Exercise in Males

Taste is influenced by several factors. However, whether habitual exercise level is associated with differences in taste perception has received little investigation. The aim of this study was to determine if habitual exercise is associated with differences in taste perception in men. Active (n = 16) and inactive (n = 14) males, between ages 18⁻55, underwent two days of sensory testing, using prototypical taste stimuli of high and low concentrations for sweet, salt, bitter, sour, umami, and carbohydrate (maltodextrin). Mean perceived intensity and hedonic ratings were recorded. Eating behaviour was assessed by the three factor eating questionnaire and food intake by EPIC food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). There were moderate to large differences between the two groups in perceived intensity for sweet taste at the high concentration and umami taste at both high and low concentrations, with active males recording a higher perceived intensity (p < 0.05 for all). The active group also recorded a greater dislike for umami low and carbohydrate low concentration (p < 0.01). Salt, bitter and sour perception did not significantly differ between the two groups. FFQ analysis showed no difference in % energy from macronutrients between the groups. Eating behaviour traits correlated with sweet taste intensity and umami taste liking, independent of activity status. Results indicated that sweet and umami taste perception differ in active compared to inactive males. Habitual exercise level should be considered in taste perception research and in product development. Whether differences in taste perception could be one factor influencing food intake and thus energy balance with habitual exercise warrants further investigation.

Dairy Consumption and Metabolic Health

Milk and dairy foods are naturally rich sources of a wide range of nutrients, and when consumed according to recommended intakes, contribute essential nutrients across all stages of the life cycle. Seminal studies recommendations with respect to intake of saturated fat have been consistent and clear: limit total fat intake to 30% or less of total dietary energy, with a specific recommendation for intake of saturated fat to less than 10% of total dietary energy. However, recent work has re-opened the debate on intake of saturated fat in particular, with suggestions that recommended intakes be considered not at a total fat intake within the diet, but at a food-specific level. A large body of evidence exists examining the impact of dairy consumption on markers of metabolic health, both at a total-dairy-intake level and also at a food-item level, with mixed findings to date. However the evidence suggests that the impact of saturated fat intake on health differs both across food groups and even between foods within the same food group such as dairy. The range of nutrients and bioactive components in milk and dairy foods are found in different levels and are housed within very different food structures. The interaction of the overall food structure and the nutrients describes the concept of the 'food matrix effect' which has been well-documented for dairy foods. Studies show that nutrients from different dairy food sources can have different effects on health and for this reason, they should be considered individually rather than grouped as a single food category in epidemiological research. This narrative review examines the current evidence, mainly from randomised controlled trials and meta-analyses, with respect to dairy, milk, yoghurt and cheese on aspects of metabolic health, and summarises some of the potential mechanisms for these findings.

Patterns of dairy food intake, body composition and markers of metabolic health in Ireland: results from the National Adult Nutrition Survey

Background:

Studies examining the association between dairy consumption and metabolic health have shown mixed results. This may be due, in part, to the use of different definitions of dairy, and to single types of dairy foods examined in isolation.

Objective:

The objective of the study was to examine associations between dairy food intake and metabolic health, identify patterns of dairy food consumption and determine whether dairy dietary patterns are associated with outcomes of metabolic health, in a cross-sectional survey.

Design:

A 4-day food diary was used to assess food and beverage consumption, including dairy (defined as milk, cheese, yogurt, cream and butter) in free-living, healthy Irish adults aged 18–90 years (n=1500). Fasting blood samples (n=897) were collected, and anthropometric measurements taken. Differences in metabolic health markers across patterns and tertiles of dairy consumption were tested via analysis of covariance. Patterns of dairy food consumption, of different fat contents, were identified using cluster analysis.

Results:

Higher (total) dairy was associated with lower body mass index, %body fat, waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio (P<0.001), and lower systolic (P=0.02) and diastolic (P<0.001) blood pressure. Similar trends were observed when milk and yogurt intakes were considered separately. Higher cheese consumption was associated with higher C-peptide (P<0.001). Dietary pattern analysis identified three patterns (clusters) of dairy consumption; 'Whole milk', 'Reduced fat milks and yogurt' and 'Butter and cream'. The 'Reduced fat milks and yogurt' cluster had the highest scores on a Healthy Eating Index, and lower-fat and saturated fat intakes, but greater triglyceride levels (P=0.028) and total cholesterol (P=0.015). conclusion: Overall, these results suggest that while milk and yogurt consumption is associated with a favourable body phenotype, the blood lipid profiles are less favourable when eaten as part of a low-fat high-carbohydrate dietary pattern. More research is needed to better understand this association.

Conclusion:

Overall, these results suggest that although milk and yogurt consumption is associated with a favourable body phenotype, the blood lipid profiles are less favourable when eaten as part of a low-fat high-carbohydrate dietary pattern. More research is needed to better understand this association.

Genetic Differences in Taste Receptors: Implications for the Food Industry

Inborn genetic differences in chemosensory receptors can lead to differences in perception and preference for foods and beverages. These differences can drive market segmentation for food products as well as contribute to nutritional status. This knowledge may be essential in the development of foods and beverages because the sensory profiles may not be experienced in the same way across individuals. Rather, distinct consumer groups may exist with different underlying genetic variations. Identifying genetic factors associated with individual variability can help better meet consumer needs through an enhanced understanding of perception and preferences. This review provides an overview of taste and chemesthetic sensations and their receptors, highlighting recent advances linking genetic variations in chemosensory genes to perception, food preference and intake, and health. With growing interest in personalized foods, this information is useful for both food product developers and nutrition health professionals alike.

TongueSim: Development of an Automated Method for Rapid Assessment of Fungiform Papillae Density for Taste Research

Taste buds are found on the tongue in 3 types of structures: the fungiform papillae, the foliate papillae, and the circumvallate papillae. Of these, the fungiform papillae (FP) are present in the greatest numbers on the tongue, and are thought to be correlated to the overall number of taste buds. For this reason, FP density on the tongue is often used to infer taste function, although this has been controversial. Historically, videomicroscopy techniques were used to assess FP. More recently, advances in digital still photography and in software have allowed the development of rapid methods for obtaining high quality images in situ. However, these can be subject to inter-researcher variation in FP identification, and are somewhat limited in the parameters that can be measured. Here, we describe the development of a novel, automated method to count the FP, using the TongueSim suite of software. Advantages include the reduction in time required for image analysis, elimination of researcher bias, and the added potential to measure characteristics such as the degree of roundness of each papilla. We envisage that such software has a wide variety of novel research applications.

The best COVID-19 predictor is recent smell loss: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

COVID-19 has heterogeneous manifestations, though one of the most common symptoms is a sudden loss of smell (anosmia or hyposmia). We investigated whether olfactory loss is a reliable predictor of COVID-19.

METHODS

This preregistered, cross-sectional study used a crowdsourced questionnaire in 23 languages to assess symptoms in individuals self-reporting recent respiratory illness. We quantified changes in chemosensory abilities during the course of the respiratory illness using 0-100 visual analog scales (VAS) for participants reporting a positive (C19+; n=4148) or negative (C19-; n=546) COVID-19 laboratory test outcome. Logistic regression models identified singular and cumulative predictors of COVID-19 status and post-COVID-19 olfactory recovery.

RESULTS

Both C19+ and C19- groups exhibited smell loss, but it was significantly larger in C19+ participants (mean±SD, C19+: -82.5±27.2 points; C19-: -59.8±37.7). Smell loss during illness was the best predictor of COVID-19 in both single and cumulative feature models (ROC AUC=0.72), with additional features providing no significant model improvement. VAS ratings of smell loss were more predictive than binary chemosensory yes/no-questions or other cardinal symptoms, such as fever or cough. Olfactory recovery within 40 days was reported for ~50% of participants and was best predicted by time since illness onset.

CONCLUSIONS

As smell loss is the best predictor of COVID-19, we developed the ODoR-19 tool, a 0-10 scale to screen for recent olfactory loss. Numeric ratings ≤2 indicate high odds of symptomatic COVID-19 (10<OR<4), especially when viral lab tests are impractical or unavailable.

Determination of factors associated with serum cholesterol response to dairy fat consumption in overweight adults: Secondary analysis from an RCT

Elevated intakes of saturated fatty acids (SFA) can adversely affect serum cholesterol levels. Dairy fat contains ~60% SFA, prompting healthy eating guidelines to recommend low-fat dairy. Physiological, and environmental factors influence inter-individual variance in response to food consumption. Evidence exploring the dairy matrix has differing effects of dairy fat consumption on serum cholesterol levels when consumed in the form of cheese. The extent of this variability and determinants of response to dairy fat are currently unknown. The objective of this study was to determine factors associated with lipid metabolism response to a dairy fat intervention, with a focus on serum cholesterol. A 6-week randomized parallel intervention trial was carried out in healthy volunteers (≥50 years, BMI ≥25 kg/m²). Participants (n = 104) consumed ~40 g dairy fat daily in addition to their usual diet, in 1 of 3 forms: butter, cheese, or reduced-fat cheese and butter. For this analysis, “response” was based on the percentage (%) change in serum total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c), and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c) from pre- to post-intervention. Participants were divided into tertiles for each lipid response. The upper and lower tertiles were used to categorize participants as “responders” and “non-responders.” For TC and LDL-c, response was classified as a decrease, whereas “response” was defined as an increase for HDL-c. Clinical response was also considered, by calculating pre- and post-intervention prevalence of those meeting target levels of cholesterol recommendations. Participants demonstrating the largest % decrease (Tertile 1; “responders”) in TC had significantly higher levels of TC and HDL-c, at baseline, and lower levels of triglycerides (TAGs) compared to those in tertile 3 (i.e., TC non-responders). Those with the largest % decrease in LDL-c (Tertile 1: LDL-c responders) had higher baseline levels of LDL-c and lower levels of TAGs. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the % change in TC and LDL-c was associated with baseline TC, TAG, body weight and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP; P < 0.05). Previous work has demonstrated the dairy food matrix affects lipid response to dairy consumption. This study suggests that phenotypic differences may also influence response to dairy fat in overweight individuals.

Dairy consumption in adults in China: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Research on dairy consumption in China is lacking, however, some evidence has demonstrated significant changes in recent years, with a reported increase in the overall consumption of dairy products. To fully understand these changes, a systematic review was conducted to examine reported dairy intakes and differences between dairy consumption in different population groups in China.

METHODS

Web of Science, Embase, and PubMed databases were searched for studies published from January 2000 to September 2022. The China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) was used to retrieve papers available in Chinese. Papers reporting dietary intakes of dairy consumption across age, sex, and geographical location sub-groups were considered for inclusion in this review. In addition, this review includes the consumption of different types of dairy foods and changes in dairy intake over time.

RESULTS

Forty-seven papers were included in the present study. Twelve papers examined dairy consumption across age groups, showing that middle-aged adults tend to consume less dairy than other age groups. Studies comparing across location-specific cohorts reported dairy intakes among urban populations were higher than rural, as well as being higher than the national average. Coastal, Northern and Eastern residents consumed more dairy products than those living in other regions of China, and people in larger cities had higher reported intakes than smaller cities. Milk was the primary dairy product reportedly consumed by Chinese population, followed by yogurt. Concerning sex, evidence showed that females generally reported a greater daily dairy intake than males.

CONCLUSIONS

This review shows that, in China, several different population groups displayed significant differences in the amount and type of dairy consumed. When considering the incorporation of dairy products into healthy eating guidelines or positioning specific dairy products on the market, it is important to consider the differences and variations in consumption patterns within population groups.

Variation in TAS2R receptor genes explains differential bitterness of two common antibiotics

For pharmaceuticals to deliver their full benefits with maximum efficacy, patients need to follow recommended dosing schedules, in terms of amount and frequency. Unfortunately, the aversive taste of many drugs, especially bitterness, can reduce patient compliance in oral liquid formulations. Given common genetic differences in bitter taste receptor genes (TAS2Rs), some individuals may be at increased risk for poor compliance due to heightened bitterness that becomes a barrier to proper use. Here we report on the sensory profile of two antibiotics, chloramphenicol and ofloxacin, investigating whether bitterness intensity associates with nominally functional TAS2R variants. Participants (n = 143) rated suprathreshold intensity on a general Labeled Magnitude Scale (gLMS) for chloramphenicol and ofloxacin; propylthiouracil (PROP) was included as a control, given robust prior associations with TAS2R38 variants. The dominant sensation from chloramphenicol and ofloxacin was bitterness, falling just below "moderate" on a gLMS. TAS2R38 diplotype associated with variable bitterness of chloramphenicol and PROP, but not ofloxacin. The bitterness of ofloxacin associated with a TAS2R9 SNP (V187A). This pilot study provides novel evidence on differences in the bitterness from two antibiotics, which are associated with TAS2R variants. Improved understanding of individualized barriers to patient compliance, especially for oral formulations, can guide future efforts to optimize delivery systems for improved compliance.

Role of food matrix in modulating dairy fat induced changes in lipoprotein particle size distribution in a human intervention

BACKGROUND

Intake of dairy fat within the matrix of cheese lowered circulating LDL cholesterol concentration to a greater extent than the same components consumed separately as butter, protein, and calcium. However, circulating LDL cholesterol is not indicative of concentration or size of LDL particles (LDL-P), which are recognized as more sensitive risk markers of CVD.

OBJECTIVES

This was an exploratory analysis to investigate the role of the food matrix on lipoprotein particle size distribution, after a dairy fat intervention, in overweight adults aged ≥50 y.

METHODS

Lipoprotein particle size distribution was measured in fasting EDTA blood samples taken at week 0 (baseline) and at week 6, using NMR. In total, 127 participants (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m², aged ≥50 y) received ∼42 g dairy fat in 1 of 4 treatments: group A, 120 g full-fat cheddar cheese (FFCC); group B, reduced-fat cheese plus butter (RFC+B); group C, butter, calcium caseinate powder, and calcium supplement (CaCO₃) (BCC); or group D, 120 g FFCC (as per group A) but after a 6-wk washout period during which they excluded cheese before intervention.

RESULTS

Total VLDL and chylomicron particles (VLDL/CM-P) decreased after intervention. There was a strong correlation between reduced VLDL/CM-P and a reduction in small proatherogenic VLDL-P (r = 0.888, P < 0.001). Reductions in total LDL-P were associated with a reduction in small LDL-P and, to a lesser extent, with large LDL-P. There was a significant main effect of treatment for change in intermediate-density lipoprotein particles (IDL-P) after the intervention (P = 0.023) between groups B and D (-46.86 ± 30.38 and 40.69 ± 32.72 nmol/L, respectively). HDL particle (HDL-P) parameters (diameter, concentration, or size distribution) were not affected by diet.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that reductions in LDL cholesterol observed with dairy fat consumption are driven by reductions in LDL-P concentration. A trend toward a less atherogenic profile was observed, but there was no clear effect of the individual food matrices. This trial was registered at ISRCTN as ISRCTN86731958.

Effect of reduced-calcium and high-calcium cheddar cheese consumption on the excretion of faecal fat: a 2-week cross-over dietary intervention study

PURPOSE

Studies show that dairy fat consumed in the form of cheese reduce LDL-cholesterol concentration (LDL-c) compared to butter and mechanistic suggestions include the calcium content of cheese leading to enhanced faecal fat excretion. The aim of this study was to test the effect of varying the calcium content within a cheese, on faecal fat excretion as a primary outcome, and blood lipid markers, fasting glucose and calcium excretion as secondary outcomes.

METHODS

7 healthy males (BMI 18-25) participated in this randomized, cross-over control intervention, of 3 × 2 week periods. Diets contained 240 g/day cheese; a High Calcium Cheese (HCC) diet, a Reduced Calcium Cheese (RCC) diet, and a control arm: Reduced Calcium Cheese + CaCO₃ Supplement (RCC + Supp) diet. Diets differed in calcium content and form but were otherwise controlled for energy and key macronutrients. Blood and 5-day faecal samples were collected.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference in faecal fat excretion (g/day) between the diets (P = 0.066). Percent fat of faecel excretion was higher after RCC + Supp (P = 0.016). None of the individual fatty acids were different. Fasting LDL-c was significantly lower following the HCC diet vs. the other arms (P = 0.002). Faecal Ca was different across all diets (P = 0.001), lowest after RCC, and greatest after RCC + Supp. No differences were observed for fasting blood parameters or changes in anthropometry.

CONCLUSION

Varying the calcium content within a cheese matrix significantly affected fasting LDL-c values. Results did not support higher faecal fat excretion as an underlying mechanism, but the high attrition rate was a limitation. Trial registerer Trial Registered at ISRCTN.org, registration number ISRCTN11663659 on 12.07.2022. Retrospectively registered.

Harnessing the Magic of the Dairy Matrix for Next-Level Health Solutions: A Summary of a Symposium Presented at Nutrition 2022

An emerging body of scientific evidence demonstrates that the food matrix-the interaction among nutrients, bioactive components, and physical structure of a food-can affect health in significant, unexpected ways beyond its individual nutrients. In particular, research suggests that consumption of dairy foods such as milk, yogurt, and cheese may affect human health in a matrix-dependent fashion. To disseminate and discuss the growing body of evidence surrounding the role of the dairy food matrix on cardiometabolic health, 3 expert researchers on the topic of the food matrix shared the latest science in a session entitled "Next-Level Health Solutions: The Magic of the Matrix" at the American Society for Nutrition's 2022 LIVE ONLINE Conference. This article is a summary of the literature presented and discussed during that session. A substantial body of literature demonstrates that full-fat dairy foods, particularly fermented dairy foods, may beneficially modulate cardiometabolic outcomes depending on an individual's health status. These findings have important implications for current authoritative dietary guidance that recommends the consumption of low-fat or fat-free dairy foods. Furthermore, this evidence may inform practical applications of harnessing dairy's unique profile of bioactives for health promotion and disease prevention at the individual and community levels.

An examination of the impact of unmelted, melted, and deconstructed cheese on lipid metabolism: a 6-week randomised trial

Background: Evidence suggests cheese has a favourable or neutral effect on cardiometabolic health, compared to butter. To date, studies have only considered the cheese matrix in its unmelted form, while the effect of melted cheese remains unknown. Objective: To test the effect of 6-week daily consumption of ∼40 g dairy fat, eaten in either as unmelted cheese, melted cheese, or in a fully deconstructed form, on markers of metabolic health in overweight adults aged ≥50 years of age. Design: A 6-week randomised parallel intervention, where 162 participants (43.3% male) received ∼40 g of dairy fat per day, in 1 of 3 treatments: (A) 120 g full-fat Irish grass-fed cheddar cheese, eaten in unmelted form (n 58); (B) 120 g full-fat Irish grass-fed cheddar cheese eaten in melted form (n 53); or (C) the equivalent components; butter (49 g), calcium caseinate powder (30 g), and Ca supplement (CaCO3; 500 mg) (n 51). Results: There was no difference in weight, fasting glucose, or insulin between the groups post-intervention. Melted cheese, compared to unmelted cheese, increased total cholesterol (0.23 ± 0.79 mmol L-1vs. 0.02 ± 0.67 mmol L-1, P = 0.008) and triglyceride concentrations (0.17 ± 0.39 mmol L-1vs. 0.00 ± 0.42 mmol L-1, P = 0.016). Melted cheese increased total cholesterol concentrations by 0.20 ± 0.15 mmol L-1 and triglyceride concentrations by 0.17 ± 0.08 mmol L-1 compared to unmelted cheese. No significant differences were observed between the cheese forms for change in HDL, LDL or VLDL cholesterol. Conclusion: Compared to unmelted cheese, melted cheese was found to increase total cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations in middle-aged, overweight adults with no effect on weight or glycaemic control.