Urgent colonoscopy for the diagnosis and treatment of severe diverticular hemorrhage

BACKGROUND

Although endoscopy is often used to diagnose and treat acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding, its role in the management of diverticulosis and lower gastrointestinal bleeding is uncertain.

METHODS

We studied the role of urgent colonoscopy in the diagnosis and treatment of 121 patients with severe hematochezia and diverticulosis. All patients were hospitalized, received blood transfusions as needed, and received a purge to rid the colon of clots, stool, and blood. Colonoscopy was performed within 6 to 12 hours after hospitalization or the diagnosis of hematochezia. Among the first 73 patients, those with continued diverticular bleeding underwent hemicolectomy. For the subsequent 48 patients, those requiring treatment received therapy, such as epinephrine injections or bipolar coagulation, through the colonoscope.

RESULTS

Of the first 73 patients, 17 (23 percent) had definite signs of diverticular hemorrhage (active bleeding in 6, nonbleeding visible vessels in 4, and adherent clots in 7). Nine of the 17 had additional bleeding after colonoscopy, and 6 of these required hemicolectomy. Of the subsequent 48 patients, 10 (21 percent) had definite signs of diverticular hemorrhage (active bleeding in 5, nonbleeding visible vessels in 2, and adherent clots in 3). An additional 14 patients in this group (29 percent) were presumed to have diverticular bleeding because although they had no stigmata of diverticular hemorrhage, no other source of bleeding was identified. The other 24 patients (50 percent) had other identified sources of bleeding. All 10 patients with definite diverticular hemorrhage were treated endoscopically; none had recurrent bleeding or required surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

Among patients with severe hematochezia and diverticulosis, at least one fifth have definite diverticular hemorrhage. Colonoscopic treatment of such patients with epinephrine injections, bipolar coagulation, or both may prevent recurrent bleeding and decrease the need for surgery.

Diagnosis and treatment of severe hematochezia. The role of urgent colonoscopy after purge

The purpose of this study was to prospectively evaluate (a) the diagnosis and treatment of 80 consecutive patients with severe, ongoing hematochezia from unknown source and (b) the effectiveness and safety of urgent colonoscopy after oral purge. Fifty-two men and 28 women (mean age, 64.5 yr) received a mean of 6.5 U of blood and had negative anoscopy, rigid sigmoidoscopy, and nasogastric tube aspiration before our evaluation. Because of ongoing severe hematochezia in the intensive care unit, urgent diagnosis and treatment was recommended by the attending physicians and surgeons. Emergency panendoscopy was performed before purge. Urgent colonoscopy was performed in the intensive care unit after patients received oral purge and their gut was cleared of blood, clots, and stool. The final diagnosis in these patients was 74% colonic lesions (30% angiomata, 17% diverticulosis, 11% polyps or cancer, 9% focal ulcers, 7% other), 11% upper gastrointestinal lesions, and 9% presumed small bowel lesions. No lesion site was identified in 6%. Clinically significant fluid retention (medically controlled) occurred in 4% of patients after purge. Sixty-four percent of patients had intervention for control of bleeding: 39% had therapeutic endoscopy, 24% surgery, and 1% therapeutic angiography. For 22 patients who also had emergency visceral angiography, the diagnostic yield was 14% and the complication rate was 9%. Our conclusions for patients with severe ongoing hematochezia from an unknown site were as follows. (a) Oral purge was effective and safe for cleansing the colon of stool, clots, and blood. Sulfate purge appeared to be safer than saline purge. (b) Before urgent colonoscopy and purge, emergency panendoscopy was indicated to exclude an upper gastrointestinal bleeding source. (c) Urgent colonoscopy after purge was effective, safe, and often diagnostic. (d) Compared with urgent colonoscopy, urgent visceral angiography was often nondiagnostic. However, the examinations may be complementary. (e) Hemostasis via colonoscopy has a definitive role in the treatment of some focal colonic lesions such as bleeding angiomata.

A randomized prospective study of endoscopic bipolar electrocoagulation and heater probe treatment of chronic rectal bleeding from radiation telangiectasia

BACKGROUND

Our purposes were to (1) evaluate efficacy and safety of bipolar or heater probe endoscopic coagulation compared to prior medical therapy for bleeding radiation telangiectasia, and (2) consider the impact of treatments on patients' impression of their overall health and activity.

METHODS

Twelve months of medical management had failed in 18 men and 3 women with chronic, recurrent hematochezia and anemia after radiation treatment of pelvic malignancies. Patients had multiple rectal telangiectasias coagulated with bipolar or heater probes in a randomized, prospective study.

RESULTS

Rectal bleeding stopped within four treatment sessions. During 12 months of endoscopic versus medical therapy, severe bleeding episodes diminished significantly for bipolar probe versus 12 months of prior medical therapy (75% vs 33%) and heater probe (67% vs 11%); mean hematocrits rose significantly for patients undergoing bipolar (38.2 vs 31.9) and heater probe (37.6 vs 28.4) treatments, and their impression of overall health improved. During long-term follow-up, new telangiectasias or rectal bleeding were easily controlled. No major complications resulted.

CONCLUSIONS

(1) Bipolar or heater probes were safe and effective relative to medical therapy for palliation of patients with lower gastrointestinal bleeding from radiation telangiectasias, and (2) all patients improved in ability to travel and exercise and in their overall impression of their health.

Controlled study of different sclerosing agents for coagulation of canine gut arteries

Excellent clinical results have been reported with sclerotherapy for control of nonvariceal gastrointestinal hemorrhage. However, there are few controlled or comparative data on different sclerosing agents for treatment of lesions with active arterial bleeding or nonbleeding visible vessels. In a controlled, randomized study of canine small bowel arteries our purposes were (a) to evaluate the efficacy for arterial coagulation of six sclerosing agents compared with normal saline control, (b) to compare the resultant tissue injury of agents, and (c) to elucidate the possible mechanisms of arterial coagulation and tissue injury of the agents. The agents evaluated were (a) 98% ethanol, (b) TES, a mixture with final concentration of 1% tetradecyl sulfate, 32% ethanol, and 0.3 normal saline, (c) 1% polidocanol (Ethoxysclerol), (d) 1:10,000 epinephrine, (e) 7.2% hypertonic saline, (f) 3.6% hypertonic saline, and (g) 0.9% saline (normal saline control). Agents were injected from the mucosal side of the small bowel into and around the pentrating serosal arteries in the subserosal space. Ethanol and TES were the most effective agents for arterial coagulation. Polidocanol was less effective than ethanol and TES. However, it was the only other agent that induced significant arterial coagulation. Alcohol and TES also caused significant injury in surrounding tissue. The degree of this injury was dependent on the total volume injected. Epinephrine induced significant mucosal damage without significant serosal injury or arterial coagulation. The coagulation and tissue injury effects of hypertonic saline injections were not significantly different from normal saline control.

Clinical and economic outcomes of individuals with severe peptic ulcer hemorrhage and nonbleeding visible vessel: an analysis of two prospective clinical trials

OBJECTIVE

We report the clinical outcomes and direct medical costs of 155 patients with severe peptic ulcer hemorrhage and a nonbleeding visible vessel at emergency endoscopy treated with endoscopic hemostasis or medical-surgical therapy.

METHODS

In two consecutive, prospective, randomized, controlled trials, patients were randomly assigned to endoscopic hemostasis (heater probe, bipolar electrocoagulation, or injection sclerosis) or medical-surgical treatment. Study endpoints included the incidence of severe ulcer rebleeding and emergency surgery, length of hospital stay, blood transfusion requirements, mortality rate, and direct costs of utilized health care. Direct medical costs were estimated using combined fixed and variable institutional costs for consumed resources and Medicare reimbursement rates.

RESULTS

Compared with medical-surgical treatment, endoscopically treated patients had significantly lower rates of severe ulcer rebleeding (p = 0.004), emergency surgery (p = 0.002 and p = 0.019, 0.024), and blood transfusions (p = 0.025). Observed inter-trial differences in ulcer rebleeding rates may be partially explained in a multivariate model by covariates of comorbid disease and inpatient ulcer bleeding. In both trials, length of hospital stay, mortality rates, and treatment-related complications were similar. Estimated median direct costs per patient differed: The first trial had lower costs with endoscopic hemostasis ($4254, vs $4620 for electrocoagulation and $5909 for medical-surgical treatment), yet the second trial yielded lower costs with medical-surgical treatment ($3169, vs $3477 for injection sclerosis and $4098 for heater probe).

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with medical-surgical therapy, endoscopic hemostasis for severe ulcer hemorrhage and a nonbleeding visible vessel yielded significantly better patient outcomes and was safe. This procedure may or may not yield lower direct medical costs and cost savings.

The economic impact of esophageal variceal hemorrhage: cost-effectiveness implications of endoscopic therapy

Esophageal variceal hemorrhage (EVH) is a serious and expensive sequela of chronic liver disease, leading to increased utilization of resources. Today, endoscopic sclerotherapy (ES) and endoscopic ligation (EL) are the accepted, community standards of endoscopic treatment of patients with EVH. However, there are no published studies comparing the economic costs of treating EVH using these interventions. As part of a prospective, randomized trial comparing ES and EL for the treatment of EVH, we estimated the direct costs of health care utilization and cost-effectiveness for the prevention of variceal rebleeding and patient survival at 1-year follow-up. Treatment groups were similar in incidence of variceal rebleeding (41.9% vs. 42.9%), variceal obliteration (41.9% vs. 40.0%), hospital days, blood transfusions, shunt requirements, and survival (71.0% vs. 60.0%). There were significantly more treatment failures for active bleeding using EL (42% vs. 0%; P =.027) and esophageal stricture formation in the ES-treated patients (19.4% vs. 2.9%; P = 0.03). Median total direct cost outcomes were similar between groups (EL = $9,696 and ES = $13,197; P =.46). EL and ES had similar cost/variceal rebleeding prevented ($28,678 vs. $29,093) and cost/survival ($27,313 vs. $23,804). In the subgroup of active bleeders, ES had a substantially lower cost/survival ($28,523 vs. $51,696). We conclude that resource utilization was similar between treatment groups and that the choice of endoscopic therapy for EVH must still rely on clinical grounds. Further studies comparing costs and resource utilization in this patient population are needed.

Endoscopic management of biliary leaks after T-tube removal in liver transplant recipients: nasobiliary drainage versus biliary stenting

This study presents the long-term sequelae of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)-managed biliary leakage in patients who underwent orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) and compares the relative efficacy, safety, and charges of nasobiliary drainage (NBD) versus biliary stenting (BS). We identified all orthotopic liver transplant recipients from January 1, 1993, to December 31, 1997, who had undergone ERCP for biliary leakage. Clinical outcome and charges were calculated on an intention-to-treat basis according to initial endoscopic therapy. Of the 1,166 adult OLTs performed during the study period, 442 patients underwent elective T-tube removal. ERCP was attempted in 69 patients (16%) who developed biliary leakage after T-tube removal. Three patients (5%) in whom initial ERCP was unsuccessful underwent surgery. NBD and BS were used as primary therapy in 45 (68%) and 21 patients (32%), respectively. Three patients initially treated with NBD required reendoscopy or surgery compared with 6 patients initially treated with BS (P <.05). Although not statistically significant, there was a trend toward greater expense in the BS group compared with the NBD group. ERCP is a safe and effective method of managing biliary leakage after T-tube removal in orthotopic liver transplant recipients. However, our results suggest NBD is the preferred method because recurrent leaks were more common in patients treated initially with BS. With prompt use of ERCP, surgery is rarely needed for this complication of OLT.

An economic analysis of patients with active arterial peptic ulcer hemorrhage treated with endoscopic heater probe, injection sclerosis, or surgery in a prospective, randomized trial

BACKGROUND

There are no published, detailed assessments of the direct costs of endoscopic hemostasis for actively bleeding peptic ulcers. We compared the direct costs of care for patients with active ulcer hemorrhage treated with endoscopic or medical-surgical therapies and correlated these costs with patient outcomes.

METHODS

In a prospective, randomized, controlled trial, 31 patients with active ulcer hemorrhage at emergency endoscopy were randomly assigned to heater probe, injection, or medical-surgical treatment. For further ulcer bleeding, heater probe and injection patients were re-treated endoscopically and medical-surgical patients were referred for surgery. Direct costs were estimated using fixed and variable costs for resources consumed and Medicare reimbursement rates for physician fees.

RESULTS

Compared to medical-surgical treatment, the heater probe and injection groups had significantly higher primary hemostasis rates (100% and 90% vs 8%) and lower rates of emergency surgery (0% and 10% vs 75%), blood transfusions, and median direct costs per patient ($4153 and $5247 vs $11,149). Furthermore, compared to medical-surgical treatment, the heater probe group had a significantly lower incidence of severe ulcer rebleeding (11% vs 75%).

CONCLUSIONS

Heater probe and injection sclerosis are similarly efficacious treatments for active ulcer hemorrhage, and both treatments yield significantly lower direct costs of medical care and cost savings.

Prospective randomized comparative study of bipolar electrocoagulation versus heater probe for treatment of chronically bleeding internal hemorrhoids

BACKGROUND

Our purpose was to compare the efficacy, complications, failure rates, and crossovers of heater and bipolar probe treatments of chronically bleeding internal hemorrhoids.

METHODS

Eighty-one patients (31 female, 50 male) with mean age of 53 years had large (grade 2 to 3) internal hemorrhoids with bleeding for a mean of 12 years, had failed medical management, and were randomized in a prospective study of anoscopic treatments to heater versus bipolar probes. Failure was defined as a major complication or failure to reduce the size of all internal hemorrhoids with three or more treatments.

RESULTS

With similar background variables and no difference in treatment times, rectal bleeding and other symptoms were controlled in a shorter time with the heater probe than with the bipolar probe (77 versus 121 days). Five complications (fissures, bleeding, or rectal spasm) occurred with the bipolar probe, and two occurred with the heater probe. The heater probe caused more pain during treatments but had significantly fewer failures and crossovers.

CONCLUSIONS

For patients who had failed medical management of chronically bleeding internal hemorrhoids, the techniques and complications of heater and bipolar probes were similar, but pain was more common, failures and crossovers were less frequent, and the time to symptom relief was shorter with the heater probe than with the bipolar probe.

Prospective randomized comparative study of bipolar versus direct current electrocoagulation for treatment of bleeding internal hemorrhoids

Internal hemorrhoids are the most common cause of lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Although new anoscopic therapies are available, few comparative randomized studies have evaluated them in regard to long-term efficacy, recurrence rates, and safety. Our purpose was to compare the treatment of internal hemorrhoids with direct current (Ultroid, Cabot Medical, Langhorn, Pa.) and bipolar (BICAP, Circon ACMI, Stamford, Conn.) hemorrhoid probes. One hundred patients with symptomatic internal hemorrhoids were randomized: 50 to direct current electrocoagulation and 50 to bipolar electrocoagulation. Follow-up and treatment were at 3- to 4-weekly intervals; two to three hemorrhoid segments were treated at each session until relief of symptoms (bleeding, prolapse, and discharge) and a reduction in hemorrhoid size to grade 1 or 0 were noted. The hemorrhoids of 98% of all patients studied were grade 2 or 3; 2% of patients had grade 1 hemorrhoids and none had grade 4 hemorrhoids. At 1 year after treatment, most patients had no (69%) or only mild (23%) recurrence, and a few had severe, symptomatic (8%) hemorrhoid recurrence. A greater recurrence rate was noted after direct current treatment (34%) than bipolar treatment (29%). In contrast, rebleeding at 1 year occurred less frequently after direct current treatment (5%) than after bipolar treatment (20%). Our conclusions were as follows: (1) Both direct current and bipolar probes were effective for control of chronic bleeding from grade 1 to 3 internal hemorrhoids. (2) Bipolar probe was significantly faster than direct current probe. (3) Direct current treatment produced fewer complications than bipolar treatment (12% versus 14%). (4) Recurrence rates were low after 1 year with either device (8%).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Randomized, prospective study of cyanoacrylate injection, sclerotherapy, or rubber band ligation for endoscopic hemostasis of bleeding canine gastric varices

The purpose of this randomized, nonblinded study was to compare the effectiveness, safety, and technical ease of three different endoscopic techniques for the treatment of bleeding gastric varices in a canine model. Twenty dogs with large, bleeding gastric varices underwent endoscopic hemostasis with rubber band ligation, sclerotherapy, and cyanoacrylate injection. The time and number of attempts required to achieve definitive hemostasis were evaluated for each technique, and each method was assessed for ease of use. Ulceration rates, ulcer size and depth, and stigmata of ulcer hemorrhage were assessed at 1 week. Intravariceal sclerotherapy was the fastest and easiest to perform. Rubber band ligation was intermediate in technical ease, but it caused the largest and deepest ulcers and had the highest rates of stigmata of ulcer hemorrhage and secondary bleeding. Cyanoacrylate injection was the most cumbersome endoscopic method to perform. All three treatments were effective for controlling gastric variceal bleeding. Intravariceal sclerotherapy had the most favorable results overall because of its technical ease, efficacy, and modest complication rates.

Randomized controlled study of injury in the canine right colon from simultaneous biopsy and coagulation with different hot biopsy forceps

BACKGROUND

Monopolar hot biopsy forceps (HBF), bipolar HBF, and cold biopsy forceps (CBF) followed by bipolar electrocoagulation are used clinically to simultaneously perform a biopsy and coagulate diminutive colon polyps and angiomata. Our purpose was to conduct a randomized, controlled study to evaluate the safety of these different techniques in the canine right colon.

METHODS

After right colotomy in 8 mongrel dogs, colonic mucosa was grasped en face, tented, and biopsy performed in randomized order. The dogs were sacrificed after nine days and the biopsy sites were identified and histologically examined.

RESULTS

Monopolar HBF caused an overall mean rate of acute serosal whitening of 29% compared with 0% for bipolar HBF and CBF and 6% for CBF/bipolar probe. Histologically confirmed transmural injury 9 days after biopsy occurred in 44% of monopolar HBF compared with 5% of bipolar HBF, 0% of CBF, and 50% of CBF/bipolar probe.

CONCLUSIONS

Monopolar HBF had significantly higher rates of acute serosal whitening and histologic transmural damage than bipolar HBF or cold biopsy alone. On the basis of these results, monopolar HBF should be avoided for coagulation of small or flat right colon lesions such as diminutive polyps or angiomata.

Esophageal varix hemorrhage and sclerotherapy--animal studies

Although endoscopic sclerosis for control of variceal hemorrhage is an old technique, many questions remain about the technique, its applications, and outcomes after use. This report summarizes recent data from animal studies that relate to clinical questions concerning esophageal varix hemorrhage and sclerotherapy. A reproducible canine model of portal hypertension and esophageal varices is described. Three different studies with this model are summarized and discussed including: comparison of methods for endoscopic control of active variceal hemorrhage, comparison of sclerosing agents using canine venous collaterals and efficacy and safety of sclerosing agents in endoscopic sclerotherapy. In our opinion, these data should assist clinicians who are evaluating or planning clinical sclerotherapy trials.

Thermal probes alone or with epinephrine for the endoscopic haemostasis of ulcer haemorrhage

In the last two decades, significant progress has been made in the diagnosis, prognostication and treatment of patients with severe peptic ulcer haemorrhage. Patients can now be risk stratified by clinical presentation and endoscopic stigmata of ulcer haemorrhage. The purposes of this chapter are to discuss: (1) the techniques of thermal probe with or without epinephrine for haemostasis of ulcers with major stigmata of haemorrhage and (2) the outcomes of treatment of patients with ulcer haemorrhage treated with endoscopic thermal probes or other therapies, medical therapy and/or surgery. Compared to medical therapy alone, patients with major stigmata actively bleeding ulcers, non-bleeding visible vessels and non-bleeding adherent clots have been shown to benefit from endoscopic haemostasis with bipolar probe, heater probe, lasers or epinephrine injection. Outcomes showing significant improvement include blood transfusions, emergency surgery rates and length of hospital stay. Meta-analyses have also reported improvements in mortality for endoscopic compared with medical therapy of patients with severe ulcer haemorrhage and major stigmata. Patients with minor stigmata of ulcer haemorrhage (such as flat spots) or no stigmata (clean-based ulcers) do not benefit from endoscopic haemostasis. Thermal probes have the advantages of good coaptive coagulation, target irrigation, portability and relative inexpense. Recently, patients with active arterial bleeding, non-bleeding adherent clots or non-bleeding visible vessels have been reported to have better results with combination epinephrine injection and thermal probe compared to monotherapy alone (such as injection, bipolar or heater probe). In addition, repeat endoscopic combination therapy has been reported to be as effective but safer than emergency surgery for management of recurrent ulcer haemorrhage.

Resolution of chronic anal fissures after treatment of contiguous internal hemorrhoids with direct current probe

PURPOSES

(1) to prospectively evaluate efficacy and safety of direct current (DC) probe treatment of chronic anal fissures associated with internal hemorrhoids, and (2) to estimate direct and indirect costs of anoscopic treatment versus surgery.

METHODS

Ten patients with chronic fissures of 11 mm (mean length) had symptoms for 5 months (mean) in spite of medical management; all had internal hemorrhoidal disease. DC coagulation was applied to two or three contiguous internal hemorrhoids per outpatient session. Eleven mA (mean) of DC current was delivered for 7 minutes (mean) per hemorrhoid segment.

RESULTS

All 10 patients had relief of chronic anal pain within two treatments and nine anal fissures healed within 4 weeks. One patient developed a perianal abscess and fistula requiring surgery. There were no recurrences in 20 months (mean) of follow-up with medical management. Mean direct and indirect costs (in terms of lost time from work or usual activity) of DC probe treatments were estimated to be 10% to 30% lower and 2 to 10 times less, respectively, than standard surgery for chronic anal fissures.

CONCLUSION

DC probe treatment for chronic anal fissures associated with internal hemorrhoidal disease is an important advance as an effective, safe, and cost-effective nonsurgical treatment in selected patients.

Comparison of argon laser photocoagulation and bipolar electrocoagulation for endoscopic hemostasis in the canine colon

Severe bleeding from the lower gastrointestinal tract commonly occurs from mucosal lesions such as angiodysplasia and less often from acute ulcerations. Endoscopic coagulation of such lesions is now feasible. Our purpose was to compare the efficacy and histologic injury of bipolar electrocoagulation and argon laser photocoagulation applied at laparotomy in the canine colon. After right colotomy and heparinization in adult mongrel dogs, bleeding standard ulcers were randomly assigned to treatment or control. The colonic ulcers randomized to each group were not significantly different in size or bleeding rate. Efficacy of treatment was evaluated acutely. Adjacent normal mucosa was treated with the same modality as the ulcer to simulate treatment of a mucosal lesion. The same total exposure time (argon laser photocoagulation) or number of pulses (bipolar electrocoagulation) was used for these paired treatments. Gross and histologic injury were determined after 7 days. Both argon laser photocoagulation and bipolar electrocoagulation were uniformly effective in controlling bleeding from standard colonic ulcers and the incidence of full thickness injury was similar, 33%-48%. The histologic damage seen with normal mucosa treatment was consistently less than with standard ulcers for all treatment groups. The difference is easily explained by the reduction in colonic wall thickness of about 50% with creation of standard ulcers. In our opinion, argon laser photocoagulation and bipolar electrocoagulation are safe enough to be used in clinical trials for control of colonic bleeding from mucosal lesions but not acute colonic ulcers.

A reproducible canine model of esophageal varices

One of the most promising nonoperative techniques for control of variceal hemorrhage is sclerosis via the fiberoptic endoscope. Many questions remain, however, about sclerosing agents, guidelines for effective use, and limitations of endoscopic techniques. A reproducible large animal model of esophageal varices would facilitate the critical evaluation of techniques for variceal hemostasis or sclerosis. Our purpose was to develop a large animal model of esophageal varices. Studies in pigs and dogs are described which led to the development of a reproducible canine model of esophageal varices. For the final model, mongrel dogs had laparotomy, side-to-side portacaval shunt, inferior vena cava ligation, placement of an ameroid constrictor around the portal vein, and liver biopsy. The mean (+/- SE) pre- and postshunt portal pressure increased significantly from 12 +/- 0.4 to 23 +/- 1 cm saline. Weekly endoscopies were performed to grade the varix size. Two-thirds of animals developed medium or large sized esophageal varices after the first operation. Three to six weeks later, a second laparotomy with complete ligation of the portal vein and liver biopsy were performed in animals with varices (one-third of the animals). All dogs developed esophageal varices and abdominal wall collateral veins of variable size 3-6 wk after the first operation. After the second operation, the varices became larger. Shunting of blood through esophageal varices via splenic and gastric veins was demonstrated by angiography. Sequential liver biopsies were normal. There was no morbidity or mortality. Ascites, encephalopathy, or spontaneous variceal bleeding did not occur. We have documented the lack of size change and the persistence of medium to large esophageal varices and abdominal collateral veins in all animals followed for more than 6 mo. Variceal bleeding could be induced by venipuncture for testing endoscopic hemostatic and sclerosis methods. We suggest other potential uses of this reproducible canine model of esophageal varices.

Comparison of different methods for endoscopic hemostasis of bleeding canine esophageal varices

Despite advances in the therapy of acute esophageal variceal hemorrhage, morbidity and mortality remain high. Continued severe variceal hemorrhage remains a major clinical problem in poor risk patients who cannot tolerate emergency surgery for hemostasis. Several endoscopic hemostatic methods might be effective for variceal hemostasis, but they have not been systematically evaluated. Using a reproducible canine model of esophageal varices, several hemostatic modalities were tested and compared to determine which were most effective in stopping variceal bleeding. Methods tested were endoscopic sclerotherapy, organ laser, neodymium-yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser, monopolar electro-coagulation, bipolar electrocoagulation, ferromagnetic tamponade, and endoscopic heater probe. Both neodymium-yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser and endoscopic sclerotherapy provided reliable hemostasis in acutely bleeding canine varices. Large heater probe controlled bleeding 50% of the time, and all the other methods stopped bleeding in less than half the trials. Rebleeding after balloon inflation proximal to the coagulated bleeding site did not occur with neodymium-yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser or endoscopic sclerotherapy-treated varices but did occur with the other methods. The principal differences between neodymium-yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser and endoscopic sclerotherapy were the ease of application of neodymium-yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser, the higher frequency of esophageal ulcers or erosions with neodymium-yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser, and the lack of variceal obliteration with neodymium-yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser.

Colonoscopy for diagnosis and treatment of severe lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Routine outcomes and cost analysis

Approximately 10% to 15% of patients seen by gastroenterologists have severe, ongoing hematochezia, which most physicians assume is from a lower gastrointestinal (LGI) source. This article discusses current colonoscopic diagnosis and treatment of patients with severe LGI bleeding. The authors present their approach to the diagnosis and treatment of patients with severe hematochezia. They also discuss the specific lesions that cause this condition and the cost assessment of emergency colonoscopy compared to other approaches for diagnosis and treatment of severe hematochezia.

Acute and chronic management of lower gastrointestinal bleeding: cost-effective approaches

This article is concerned with current diagnosis and treatment of patients with severe lower gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding. Our purposes were to discuss tests available for diagnosis and treatment and to present our approach and to discuss cost assessment of different approaches. We evaluated 100 consecutive patients who presented with severe and persistent lower GI bleeding. Patients were continually monitored and had polyethylene sulfate purge to cleanse the colon. Panendoscopy revealed an upper GI source in 11%. Presumed small bowel bleeding accounted for 9%, and no site was found in 6%. During emergency colonoscopy at the bedside, a definite colonic lesion was found in 74% of patients. Angiomata accounted for 30% of total or 41% of all colonic bleeding sites. Diverticula were the source of bleeding in 23%, ulcerated colonic polyps or cancers in 15% of colonic sites, focal colitis or ulceration in 12%, rectal lesions in 5%, and other colonic sources in 4%. Based on 1990 data and costs of services to the patients with severe ongoing hematochezia, we estimated that by using emergency colonoscopy rather than medical, angiographic, and surgical management, a mean of $10,065 per patient was saved.