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Bagli E, De Salvador D, Bacci L, Sgarbossa F, Bandiera L, Camattari R, Germogli G, Mazzolari A, Sytov A, Guidi G. Enhancement of the Inelastic Nuclear Interaction Rate in Crystals via Antichanneling. Phys Rev Lett 2019; 123:044801. [PMID: 31491266 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.123.044801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The interaction rate of a charged particle beam with the atomic nuclei of a target varies significantly if the target has a crystalline structure. In particular, under specific orientations of the target with respect to the incident beam, the probability of inelastic interaction with nuclei can be enhanced with respect to the unaligned case. This effect, which can be named antichanneling, can be advantageously used in the cases where the interaction between beam and target has to be maximized. Here we propose to use antichanneling to increase the radioisotope production yield via cyclotron. A dedicated set of experimental measurements was carried out at the INFN Legnaro Laboratories with the AN2000 and CN accelerators to prove the existence of the antichanneling effect. The variation of the interaction yield at hundreds of keV to MeV energies was observed by means of sapphire and indium phosphide crystals, achieving an enhancement of the interaction rate up to 73% and 25%, respectively. Such a result may pave the way to the development of a novel type of nozzle for the existing cyclotrons, which can exploit crystalline materials as targets for radioisotope production, especially to enhance the production rate for expensive prime materials with minor upgrades of the current instrumentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Bagli
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - D De Salvador
- INFN Sezione di Legnaro, Viale dell'Università 2, 35020 Legnaro PD, Italy
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo, 8, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - L Bacci
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo, 8, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - F Sgarbossa
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo, 8, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - L Bandiera
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - R Camattari
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - G Germogli
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - A Mazzolari
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - A Sytov
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
- Institute for Nuclear Problems, Belarusian State University, 220030 Minsk, Belarus
| | - G Guidi
- COMECER SpA, Via Maestri del Lavoro 90, 48014 Alberazzo-Canalvecchio, Italy
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Mazzolari A, Romagnoni M, Camattari R, Bagli E, Bandiera L, Germogli G, Guidi V, Cavoto G. Bent crystals for efficient beam steering of multi TeV-particle beams. Eur Phys J C Part Fields 2018; 78:720. [PMID: 30839741 PMCID: PMC6191161 DOI: 10.1140/epjc/s10052-018-6196-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Charged particle beams can be manipulated by exploiting the channeling phenomenon in bent crystals. Two plate-like crystals, bent by mechanical holders, were manufactured and characterised for such purpose at the Sensor and Semiconductor Laboratory in Ferrara, Italy. An anticlastic curvature was obtained for these crystals, achieving a steering angle of the order of 1 mrad, which is about 20 times larger than the values currently achieved for the bent crystals used in the LHC for collimation experiments. Finally, a Geant4 simulation was performed to study the channeling efficiency for beam deflection with 400 GeV/c and 7 TeV/c proton beams. Such crystals represent technological progress in the development of bent crystals for highly energetic charged particle beams. Indeed, they are designed to impart an angular kick to a 7 TeV/c proton beam with unprecedented high efficiency. Therefore, this study demonstrates the possibility of realizing bent crystals suitable for beam extraction in high-energy hadron accelerators, such as LHC or at the future FCC. A further series of studies should be conducted to evaluate the channeling efficiency and the deflection angle of the realized crystals via a charged proton beam.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Mazzolari
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - M. Romagnoni
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, Università degli Studi di Ferrara Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - R. Camattari
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - E. Bagli
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - L. Bandiera
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - G. Germogli
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - V. Guidi
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, Università degli Studi di Ferrara Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - G. Cavoto
- Sapienza Università degli Studi di Roma and INFN Sezione di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 2, 00185 Rome, Italy
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3
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Scandale W, Andrisani F, Arduini G, Cerutti F, Garattini M, Gilardoni S, Masi A, Mirarchi D, Montesano S, Petrucci S, Redaelli S, Schoofs P, Rossi R, Breton D, Chaumat D, Dubos S, Maalmi J, Natochii A, Puill V, Stocchi A, Bagli E, Bandiera L, Germogli G, Guidi V, Mazzolari A, Murtas F, Addesa F, Cavoto G, Iacoangeli F, Galluccio F, Afonin AG, Chesnokov YA, Durum AA, Maisheev VA, Sandomirskiy YE, Yanovich AA, Kovalenko AD, Taratin AM, Smirnov GI, Desinov AS, Gavrikov YA, Ivanov YM, Lapina LP, Malyarenko LG, Skorobogatov VV, Fulcher J, James T, Hall G, Pesaresi M, Raymond M. Study of inelastic nuclear interactions of 400 GeV/c protons in bent silicon crystals for beam steering purposes. Eur Phys J C Part Fields 2018; 78:505. [PMID: 30956555 PMCID: PMC6417461 DOI: 10.1140/epjc/s10052-018-5985-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Inelastic nuclear interaction probability of 400 GeV/c protons interacting with bent silicon crystals was investigated, in particular for both types of crystals installed at the CERN Large Hadron Collider for beam collimation purposes. In comparison to amorphous scattering interaction, in planar channeling this probability is ∼ 36 % for the quasi-mosaic type (planes (111)), and ∼ 27 % for the strip type (planes (110)). Moreover, the absolute inelastic nuclear interaction probability in the axial channeling orientation, along the ⟨ 110 ⟩ axis, was estimated for the first time, finding a value of 0.6 % for a crystal 2 mm long along the beam direction, with a bending angle of 55 μ rad. This value is more than two times lower with respect to the planar channeling orientation of the same crystal, and increases with the vertical angular misalignment. Finally, the correlation between the inelastic nuclear interaction probability in the planar channeling and the silicon crystal curvature is reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- W. Scandale
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
| | - F. Andrisani
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
| | - G. Arduini
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
| | - F. Cerutti
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
| | - M. Garattini
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
- Imperial College, London, UK
| | - S. Gilardoni
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
| | - A. Masi
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
| | - D. Mirarchi
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
| | - S. Montesano
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
| | - S. Petrucci
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
| | - S. Redaelli
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
| | - P. Schoofs
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
| | - R. Rossi
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
- INFN Sezione di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 2, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Fisica, Sapienza Univ. Roma, Piazzale A.Moro, 2, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - D. Breton
- Laboratoire de l’Accélérateur Linéaire (LAL), Université Paris Sud Orsay, Orsay, France
| | - D. Chaumat
- Laboratoire de l’Accélérateur Linéaire (LAL), Université Paris Sud Orsay, Orsay, France
| | - S. Dubos
- Laboratoire de l’Accélérateur Linéaire (LAL), Université Paris Sud Orsay, Orsay, France
| | - J. Maalmi
- Laboratoire de l’Accélérateur Linéaire (LAL), Université Paris Sud Orsay, Orsay, France
| | - A. Natochii
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
- Laboratoire de l’Accélérateur Linéaire (LAL), Université Paris Sud Orsay, Orsay, France
- Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv (TSNUK), Kiev, Ukraine
| | - V. Puill
- Laboratoire de l’Accélérateur Linéaire (LAL), Université Paris Sud Orsay, Orsay, France
| | - A. Stocchi
- Laboratoire de l’Accélérateur Linéaire (LAL), Université Paris Sud Orsay, Orsay, France
| | - E. Bagli
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Universita di Ferrara, Via Sarogat 1 Blocco C, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - L. Bandiera
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Universita di Ferrara, Via Sarogat 1 Blocco C, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - G. Germogli
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Universita di Ferrara, Via Sarogat 1 Blocco C, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - V. Guidi
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Universita di Ferrara, Via Sarogat 1 Blocco C, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - A. Mazzolari
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Universita di Ferrara, Via Sarogat 1 Blocco C, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - F. Murtas
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
- INFN, Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati, Via Fermi, 40, 00044 Frascati, Rome Italy
| | - F. Addesa
- INFN Sezione di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 2, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - G. Cavoto
- INFN Sezione di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 2, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Fisica, Sapienza Univ. Roma, Piazzale A.Moro, 2, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - F. Iacoangeli
- INFN Sezione di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 2, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - F. Galluccio
- INFN Sezione di Napoli, Complesso Universitario di Monte Sant’Angelo, Via Cintia, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | - A. G. Afonin
- NRC Kurchatov Institute-IHEP, 142281 Protvino, Russia
| | | | - A. A. Durum
- NRC Kurchatov Institute-IHEP, 142281 Protvino, Russia
| | | | | | | | - A. D. Kovalenko
- Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Joliot-Curie 6, 141980 Dubna, Russia
| | - A. M. Taratin
- Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Joliot-Curie 6, 141980 Dubna, Russia
| | - G. I. Smirnov
- CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
- Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Joliot-Curie 6, 141980 Dubna, Russia
| | - A. S. Desinov
- Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute in National Research Centre “Kurchatov Institute”, 188300 Gatchina, Russia
| | - Yu. A. Gavrikov
- Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute in National Research Centre “Kurchatov Institute”, 188300 Gatchina, Russia
| | - Yu. M. Ivanov
- Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute in National Research Centre “Kurchatov Institute”, 188300 Gatchina, Russia
| | - L. P. Lapina
- Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute in National Research Centre “Kurchatov Institute”, 188300 Gatchina, Russia
| | - L. G. Malyarenko
- Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute in National Research Centre “Kurchatov Institute”, 188300 Gatchina, Russia
| | - V. V. Skorobogatov
- Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute in National Research Centre “Kurchatov Institute”, 188300 Gatchina, Russia
| | | | | | - G. Hall
- Imperial College, London, UK
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Bagli E, Guidi V, Mazzolari A, Bandiera L, Germogli G, Sytov AI, De Salvador D, Argiolas A, Bazzan M, Carnera A, Berra A, Bolognini D, Lietti D, Prest M, Vallazza E. Orientational Coherent Effects of High-Energy Particles in a LiNbO3 Crystal. Phys Rev Lett 2015; 115:015503. [PMID: 26182106 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.115.015503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A bent lithium niobate strip was exposed to a 400-GeV/c proton beam at the external lines of CERN Super Proton Synchrotron to probe its capabilities versus coherent interactions of the particles with the crystal such as channeling and volume reflection. Lithium niobate (LiNbO3) exhibits an interplanar electric field comparable to that of Silicon (Si) and remarkable piezoelectric properties, which could be exploited for the realization of piezo-actuated devices for the control of high-energy particle beams. In contrast to Si and germanium (Ge), LiNbO3 shows an intriguing effect; in spite of a low channeling efficiency (3%), the volume reflection maintains a high deflection efficiency (83%). Such discrepancy was ascribed to the high concentration (10(4) per cm2) of dislocations in our sample, which was obtained from a commercial wafer. Indeed, it has been theoretically shown that a channeling efficiency comparable with that of Si or Ge would be attained with a crystal at low defect concentration (less than ten per cm2). To better understand the role of dislocations on volume reflection, we have worked out computer simulation via dynecharm++ Monte Carlo code to study the effect of dislocations on volume reflection. The results of the simulations agree with experimental records, demonstrating that volume reflection is more robust than channeling in the presence of dislocations.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Bagli
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, Università di Ferrara Via Saragat 1, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
| | - V Guidi
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, Università di Ferrara Via Saragat 1, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
| | - A Mazzolari
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, Università di Ferrara Via Saragat 1, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
| | - L Bandiera
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, Università di Ferrara Via Saragat 1, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
| | - G Germogli
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, Università di Ferrara Via Saragat 1, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
| | - A I Sytov
- INFN Sezione di Ferrara, Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, Università di Ferrara Via Saragat 1, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
| | - D De Salvador
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy and INFN Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro, Viale dell'Università 2, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - A Argiolas
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy and INFN Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro, Viale dell'Università 2, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - M Bazzan
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy and INFN Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro, Viale dell'Università 2, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - A Carnera
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy and INFN Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro, Viale dell'Università 2, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - A Berra
- Università dell'Insubria, via Valleggio 11, 22100 Como, Italy and INFN Sezione di Milano Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 3, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - D Bolognini
- Università dell'Insubria, via Valleggio 11, 22100 Como, Italy and INFN Sezione di Milano Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 3, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - D Lietti
- Università dell'Insubria, via Valleggio 11, 22100 Como, Italy and INFN Sezione di Milano Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 3, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - M Prest
- Università dell'Insubria, via Valleggio 11, 22100 Como, Italy and INFN Sezione di Milano Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 3, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - E Vallazza
- INFN Sezione di Trieste, Via Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste, Italy
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Lietti D, Backe H, Bagli E, Bandiera L, Berra A, Carturan S, De Salvador D, Germogli G, Guidi V, Lauth W, Mazzolari A, Prest M, Vallazza E. The experimental setup of the Interaction in Crystals for Emission of RADiation collaboration at Mainzer Mikrotron: Design, commissioning, and tests. Rev Sci Instrum 2015; 86:045102. [PMID: 25933892 DOI: 10.1063/1.4916367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Silicon/germanium flat/bent crystals are thin devices able to efficiently deflect charged particle GeV-energy beams up to a few hundreds of μrad; moreover, high intensity photons can be efficiently produced in the so-called Multi-Volume Reflection (MVR) and Multiple Volume Reflections in One Crystal (MVROC) conditions. In the last years, the research interest in this field has moved to the dynamic studies of light negative leptons in the low energy range: the possibility to deflect negative particles and to produce high intensity γ sources via the coherent interactions with crystals in the sub-GeV energy range has been proved by the ICE-RAD (Interaction in Crystals for Emission of RADiation) Collaboration at the MAinzer MIkrotron (MAMI, Germany). This paper describes the setup used by the ICE-RAD experiment for the crystals characterization (both in terms of deflection and radiation emission properties): a high precision goniometer is used to align the crystals with the incoming beam, while a silicon based profilometer and an inorganic scintillator reconstruct, respectively, the particle position and the photon spectra after the samples. The crystals manufacturing process and their characterization, the silicon profilometer commissioning at the CERN PS T9 beamline, and the commissioning of the whole setup installed at MAMI are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Lietti
- Università degli Studi dell'Insubria, Via Valleggio 11, 22100 Como, Italy
| | - H Backe
- Institut für Kernphysik der Universität Mainz, D-55099 Mainz, Germany
| | - E Bagli
- Università degli Studi di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
| | - L Bandiera
- Università degli Studi di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
| | - A Berra
- Università degli Studi dell'Insubria, Via Valleggio 11, 22100 Como, Italy
| | - S Carturan
- Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - D De Salvador
- Università degli Studi di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - G Germogli
- Università degli Studi di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
| | - V Guidi
- Università degli Studi di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
| | - W Lauth
- Institut für Kernphysik der Universität Mainz, D-55099 Mainz, Germany
| | - A Mazzolari
- Università degli Studi di Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
| | - M Prest
- Università degli Studi dell'Insubria, Via Valleggio 11, 22100 Como, Italy
| | - E Vallazza
- INFN Sezione di Trieste, Via Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste, Italy
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Wienands U, Markiewicz TW, Nelson J, Noble RJ, Turner JL, Uggerhøj UI, Wistisen TN, Bagli E, Bandiera L, Germogli G, Guidi V, Mazzolari A, Holtzapple R, Miller M. Observation of deflection of a beam of multi-GeV electrons by a thin crystal. Phys Rev Lett 2015; 114:074801. [PMID: 25763959 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.114.074801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We report on an experiment performing channeling and volume reflection of a high-energy electron beam using a quasimosaic, bent silicon (111) crystal at the End Station A Test Beam at SLAC. The experiment uses beams of 3.35 and 6.3 GeV. In the channeling orientation, deflections of the beam of 400 μrad for both energies with about 22% efficiency are observed, while in the volume-reflection orientation, deflection of the beam by 120 μrad at 3.35 GeV and by 80 μrad at 6.3 GeV is observed with 86%-95% efficiency. Quantitative measurements of the channeling efficiency, surface transmission, and dechanneling length are taken. These are the first quantitative measurements of channeling and volume reflection using a primary beam of multi-GeV electrons.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Wienands
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - T W Markiewicz
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - J Nelson
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - R J Noble
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - J L Turner
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - U I Uggerhøj
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Aarhus, Ny Munkegade 120, DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - T N Wistisen
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Aarhus, Ny Munkegade 120, DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - E Bagli
- Department of Physics and Earth Sciences of the University of Ferrara, and INFN Section of Ferrara, Via Saragat 1/C, I-44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - L Bandiera
- Department of Physics and Earth Sciences of the University of Ferrara, and INFN Section of Ferrara, Via Saragat 1/C, I-44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - G Germogli
- Department of Physics and Earth Sciences of the University of Ferrara, and INFN Section of Ferrara, Via Saragat 1/C, I-44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - V Guidi
- Department of Physics and Earth Sciences of the University of Ferrara, and INFN Section of Ferrara, Via Saragat 1/C, I-44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - A Mazzolari
- Department of Physics and Earth Sciences of the University of Ferrara, and INFN Section of Ferrara, Via Saragat 1/C, I-44122 Ferrara, Italy
| | - R Holtzapple
- California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, California 93407, USA
| | - M Miller
- California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, California 93407, USA
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