Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome

The human genome holds an extraordinary trove of information about human development, physiology, medicine and evolution. Here we report the results of an international collaboration to produce and make freely available a draft sequence of the human genome. We also present an initial analysis of the data, describing some of the insights that can be gleaned from the sequence.

Genetic reconstitution of systemic lupus erythematosus immunopathology with polycongenic murine strains

We previously produced three congenic strains carrying lupus susceptibility genes (Sle1-Sle3) from the lupus-prone NZM2410 mouse on the C57BL/6 background and characterized their component phenotypes. Sle1 mediates the loss of tolerance to nuclear antigens; Sle2 lowers the activation threshold of B cells; and Sle3 mediates a dysregulation of CD4(+) T cells. We have now created a collection of bi- and tricongenic strains with these intervals and assessed the autoimmune phenotypes they elicit in various combinations. Our results indicate that Sle1 is key for the development of fatal lupus. The combination of Sle1 with Sle2, Sle3, or the BXSB-derived autoimmune accelerating gene yaa results in the development of systemic autoimmunity with variably penetrant severe glomerulonephritis culminating in kidney failure. In contrast, two locus combinations of Sle2, Sle3, and yaa failed to mediate fatal disease. These results indicate that the loss of tolerance to chromatin mediated by Sle1 is essential for disease pathogenesis and identify the pathway occupied by Sle1 as a strategic target for therapeutic intervention in systemic lupus erythematosus. The coexpression of Sle1, Sle2, and Sle3 as a B6-triple congenic results in severe systemic autoimmunity and fully penetrant, fatal glomerulonephritis. These results demonstrate the fulfillment of the genetic equivalent of Koch's postulate, where susceptibility loci in a lupus-prone strain have been identified by a genome scan, isolated and functionally characterized by congenic dissection, and finally shown to mediate full disease expression when recombined in a normal genome.

Effects of emulsifiers on the controlled release of paclitaxel (Taxol) from nanospheres of biodegradable polymers

Paclitaxel (Taxol) is an antineoplastic drug effective for various cancers especially ovarian and breast cancer. Due to its high hydrophobicity, however, an adjuvant such as Cremophor EL has to be used in its clinical administration, which causes serious side-effects. Nanospheres of biodegradable polymers could be an ideal solution. This study investigates the effects of various emulsifiers on the physical/chemical properties and release kinetics of paclitaxel loaded nanospheres fabricated by the solvent extraction/evaporation technique. It is shown that phospholipids could be a novel type of emulsifiers. The nanospheres manufactured with various emulsifiers were characterized by laser light scattering for their size and size distribution; scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) for their surface morphology; zeta potential analyser for their surface charge; and, most importantly, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) for their surface chemistry. The encapsulation efficiency and in vitro release profile were measured by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). It is found that dipalmitoyl-phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) can provide more complete coating on the surface of the products which thus results in a higher emulsifying efficiency compared with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Our result shows that the chain length and unsaturation of the lipids have a significant influence on the emulsifying efficiency. Phospholipids with short and saturated chains have excellent emulsifying effects.

A RUNX2/PEBP2alpha A/CBFA1 mutation displaying impaired transactivation and Smad interaction in cleidocranial dysplasia

Cleidocranial dysplasia (CCD), an autosomal-dominant human bone disease, is thought to be caused by heterozygous mutations in runt-related gene 2 (RUNX2)/polyomavirus enhancer binding protein 2alphaA (PEBP2alphaA)/core-binding factor A1 (CBFA1). To understand the mechanism underlying the pathogenesis of CCD, we studied a novel mutant of RUNX2, CCDalphaA376, originally identified in a CCD patient. The nonsense mutation, which resulted in a truncated RUNX2 protein, severely impaired RUNX2 transactivation activity. We show that signal transducers of transforming growth factor beta superfamily receptors, Smads, interact with RUNX2 in vivo and in vitro and enhance the transactivation ability of this factor. The truncated RUNX2 protein failed to interact with and respond to Smads and was unable to induce the osteoblast-like phenotype in C2C12 myoblasts on stimulation by bone morphogenetic protein. Therefore, the pathogenesis of CCD may be related to the impaired Smad signaling of transforming growth factor beta/bone morphogenetic protein pathways that target the activity of RUNX2 during bone formation.

Affinity maturation without germinal centres in lymphotoxin-alpha-deficient mice

Affinity maturation by somatic hypermutation is thought to occur within germinal centres. Mice deficient in lymphotoxin-alpha (LT alpha-/- mice) have no lymph nodes or Peyer's patches, and fail to form germinal centres in the spleen. We tested whether germinal centres are essential for maturation of antibody responses to T-cell-dependent antigens. LT alpha-/- mice immunized with low doses of (4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetyl-ovalbumin (NP-OVA) showed dramatically impaired production of high-affinity anti-NP IgG1. However, LT alpha-/- mice immunized with high doses of NP-OVA, even though they failed to produce germinal centres, manifested a high-affinity anti-NP IgG1 response similar to wild-type mice. Furthermore, when LT alpha-/- mice were multiply immunized with high doses of NP-OVA, the predominantly expressed anti-NP VH gene segment VH186.2 showed somatic mutations typical of affinity maturation. Thus, B-cell memory and affinity maturation are not absolutely dependent on the presence of germinal centres.

Hertz-Level Measurement of the Optical Clock Frequency in a Single 88Sr+ Ion

The frequency of the 5s 2S(1/2)-4d 2D(5/2) electric quadrupole clock transition in a single, trapped, laser-cooled 88Sr+ ion has been measured by using an optical frequency comb referenced to a cesium fountain primary frequency standard. The frequency of the transition is measured as 444,779,044,095,484.6 (1.5) hertz, with a fractional uncertainty within a factor of 3 of that of the cesium standard. Improvements required to obtain a cesium-limited frequency measurement are described and are expected to lead to a 88Sr+ optical clock with stability and reproducibility exceeding that of the primary cesium standard.

B lymphocytes induce the formation of follicular dendritic cell clusters in a lymphotoxin alpha-dependent fashion

Lymphotoxin (LT)alpha is expressed by activated T cells, especially CD4(+) T helper type 1 cells, and by activated B and natural killer cells, but the functions of this molecule in vivo are incompletely defined. We have previously shown that follicular dendritic cell (FDC) clusters and germinal centers (GCs) are absent from the peripheral lymphoid tissues of LTalpha-deficient (LTalpha-/-) mice. LTalpha-/- mice produce high levels of antigen-specific immunoglobulin (Ig)M, but very low levels of IgG after immunization with sheep red blood cells. We show here that LTalpha-expressing B cells are essential for the recovery of primary, secondary, and memory humoral immune responses in LTalpha-/- mice. It is not necessary for T cells to express LTalpha to support these immune functions. Importantly, LTalpha-expressing B cells alone are essential and sufficient for the formation of FDC clusters. Once these clusters are formed by LTalpha-expressing B cells, then LTalpha-deficient T cells can interact with B cells to generate GCs and productive class-switched antibody responses. Thus, B cells themselves provide an essential signal that induces and maintains the lymphoid microenvironment essential for GC formation and class-switched Ig responses.

Calcium activates serum response factor-dependent transcription by a Ras- and Elk-1-independent mechanism that involves a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase

Enhanced levels of cytoplasmic Ca2+ due to membrane depolarization with elevated levels of KCl or exposure to the Ca2+ ionophore ionomycin stimulate serum response element (SRE)-dependent transcription in the pheochromocytoma cell line PC12. By using altered binding specificity mutants of transcription factors that bind to the SRE, it was demonstrated that in contrast to treatment with purified growth factors, such as nerve growth factor, the serum response factor (SRF), but not Elk-1, mediates Ca(2+)-regulated SRE-dependent transcription. Enhanced levels of cytoplasmic Ca2+ were found to trigger SRE-dependent transcription via a Ras-independent signaling pathway that appears to involve a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase (CaMK). Overexpression of a constitutively active form of CaMKIV stimulated SRF-dependent transcription. Taken together, these findings indicate that SRF is a versatile transcription factor that, when bound to the SRE, can function by distinct mechanisms and can mediate transcriptional responses to both CaMK- and Ras-dependent signaling pathways.

Lymphotoxin-alpha (LTalpha) supports development of splenic follicular structure that is required for IgG responses

LTalpha-deficient (LTalpha-/-) mice show altered splenic microarchitecture. This includes loss of normal B cell-T cell compartmentalization, of follicular dendritic cell (FDC) clusters, and of ability to form germinal centers (GC). LTalpha-/- mice immunized with sheep red blood cells (SRBC) produced high levels of antigen-specific IgM but no IgG in either primary or secondary responses, demonstrating failure of Ig class switching. This inability to switch to IgG could have been due to the altered splenic microarchitecture in these mice. Alternatively, it could have been due directly to a requirement for LTalpha expression by lymphocytes cooperating in the antibody response. To investigate this, we performed reciprocal spleen cell transfers. When irradiated LTalpha-/- mice were reconstituted with wild-type splenocytes and immunized immediately with SRBC, splenic microarchitecture remained disturbed and there was no IgG response. In contrast, when irradiated wild-type animals received splenocytes from LTalpha-/- mice, follicle structure and a strong IgG response were retained. These data indicate that LTalpha-deficient B cells and T cells have no intrinsic defect in ability to generate an IgG response. Rather, the altered microenvironment characteristic of LTalpha-/- mice appears to result in impaired ability to switch to a productive IgG response. To investigate whether prolonged expression of LTalpha could alter the structure and function of spleen follicles, reciprocal bone marrow (BM) transplantation was performed. Six weeks after reconstitution of LTalpha-/- mice with wild-type BM, spleen follicle structure was partially restored, with return of FDC clusters and GC. B cell/T cell compartmentalization remained abnormal and white pulp zones were small. This was accompanied by restoration of IgG response to SRBC. Reconstitution of wild-type mice with LTalpha-/- BM resulted in loss of FDC clusters and GC, and loss of the IgG response, although compartmentalized B cell and T cell zones were largely retained. Thus, defective IgG production is not absolutely associated with abnormal B cell and T cell compartmentalization. Rather, expression of LTalpha supports the maturation of spleen follicle structure, including the development and maintenance of FDC clusters, which supports Ig class switching and an effective IgG response.

Multifunctional phototheranostic nanomedicine for cancer imaging and treatment

Cancer, as one of the most life-threatening diseases, shows a high fatality rate around the world. When improving the therapeutic efficacy of conventional cancer treatments, researchers also conduct extensive studies into alternative therapeutic approaches, which are safe, valid, and economical. Phototherapies, including photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), are tumor-ablative and function-reserving oncologic interventions, showing strong potential in clinical cancer treatment. During phototherapies, the non-toxic phototherapeutic agents can be activated upon light irradiation to induce cell death without causing much damage to normal tissues. Besides, with the rapid development of nanotechnology in the past decades, phototheranostic nanomedicine also has attracted tremendous interests aiming to continuously refine their performance. Herein, we reviewed the recent progress of phototheranostic nanomedicine for improved cancer therapy. After a brief introduction of the therapeutic principles and related phototherapeutic agents for PDT and PTT, the existing works on developing of phototheranostic nanomedicine by mainly focusing on their categories and applications, particularly on phototherapy-synergized cancer immunotherapy, are comprehensively reviewed. More importantly, a brief conclusion and future challenges of phototheranostic nanomedicine from our point of view are delivered in the last part of this article.

The role of CCR7 in TH1 and TH2 cell localization and delivery of B cell help in vivo

Subsets of murine CD4+ T cells localize to different areas of the spleen after adoptive transfer. Naïve and T helper 1 (TH1) cells, which express the chemokine receptor CCR7, are home to the periarteriolar lymphoid sheath, whereas activated TH2 cells, which lack CCR7, form rings at the periphery of the T cell zones near B cell follicles. Retroviral transduction of TH2 cells with CCR7 forces them to localize in a TH1-like pattern and inhibits their participation in B cell help in vivo but not in vitro. Thus, differential expression of chemokine receptors results in unique cellular migration patterns that are important for effective immune responses.

Risk factors for oesophageal cancer in northeast China

A hospital-based case-control study of oesophageal cancer was carried out in the Heilongjiang Province, a low-risk area for oesophageal cancer in China. From May 1985 to May 1989, 196 histologically confirmed cases and 392 controls with other (non-neoplastic) diseases were personally interviewed in the wards of 5 major hospitals. Information was obtained about usual consumption in the early 1980s of 32 major contributors to the diet in the province, socio-demographic status, smoking and alcohol consumption. Odds ratios (OR) were obtained from logistic regression models, and confounding was controlled by means of multivariate models. Smoking and alcohol consumption were major risk factors for oesophageal cancer in this population. Smokers of handmade cigarettes exhibited a particularly high risk. A near multiplicative synergism was found between smoking and alcohol consumption. There was a significant inverse dose-risk trend for combined consumption of vegetables and fruits; a 300-g increase per day lowered risk by 35%. Vitamin C intake was negatively associated with risk; a 100-mg increase per day lowered risk by 39%. Our data suggest a modifying effect of vitamin C and beta-carotene on risk associated with smoking, but the power of analyses was low. Salt, salt-preserved foods and pickled vegetables were not associated with increased risk. High temperature of meals and drinks was a strong risk indicator in this population. The strength of tea and overall tea consumption were independent determinants of the risk.

Pre-transplant cytomegalovirus (CMV) serostatus remains the most important determinant of CMV reactivation after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in the era of surveillance and preemptive therapy

Between January 2001 and June 2008, 315 adult patients (median age 43 years, range 16-65) including 203 males and 112 females undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) had serial monitoring for cytomegalovirus (CMV) followed by initiation of preemptive therapy. The majority (62.1%) had a conventional myeloablative transplant with 116 (36.9%) having a reduced-intensity conditioning (RIC) transplant, using either matched sibling/family (63.3%) or unrelated donors (36.7%). Graft source was peripheral blood stem cells in 257 (81.5%), bone marrow in 41 (13.1%), and cord blood in 16 (5.4%). T-cell depletion with anti-thymocyte globulin or alemtuzumab was used in 35%. Based upon CMV serostatus, patients were classified into low risk (donor [D]-/recipient [R]-), intermediate risk (D+/R-), or high risk (D-/R+ or D+/R+). Serial weekly monitoring for CMV viremia was performed using a qualitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and when positive, quantification was done using either pp65 antigen or a quantitative PCR. CMV reactivation was seen in 123 patients (39.1%) at a median of 50 days post HSCT (range 22-1978). CMV serostatus was the most important risk factor with incidence of 53% in the high-risk group (53.3%) compared with 10.2% in the intermediate risk and 0% in the low-risk group (P<0.0001). Other significant risk factors identified included use of alemtuzumab during conditioning (P=0.03), RIC transplants (P=0.06), and the presence of acute graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) (P<0.0001). On a multivariate analysis, CMV serostatus, RIC transplants, and acute GVHD remained independent predictors of CMV reactivation. All were treated with antiviral therapy with responses seen in 109 (88.6%). Sixteen patients (13%) developed CMV disease at a median of 59 days post HSCT (range 26 days-46 months), 8 of whom died. At a median follow up of 43 months (range 6-93), 166 patients (52.6%) are alive with a significantly higher survival among patients without CMV reactivation (57.2%) as compared with patients with CMV reactivation (45.5%; P=0.049). CMV reactivation and disease remains a major problem in high-risk patients undergoing allogeneic HSCT. Novel prophylactic measures such as immunotherapy and drug prophylaxis need to be considered in this specific group of patients.

The decade of exosomal long RNA species: an emerging cancer antagonist

Exosomes have emerged as a novel approach for the treatment and diagnosis of cancer after RNA content was discovered in exosomes in 2007. As important meditators of intercellular communication, exosomes have become a strong focus of investigation for researchers in the past decade, as witnessed through the exponential increase of research on exosomes. The capability of exosomes to transfer functionally active cargo highlights their importance as promising biomarkers and diagnostic molecules, as well as prospective drug delivery systems. The accessibility of exosomes in nearly all biofluids additionally alludes to its unprecedented ability in various types of cancers due to its extensive impact on tumor formation and progression. This review analyzes the role of exosomal long RNA species, which is comprised of mRNA, lncRNA, and circRNA, in tumor formation and progression, with an emphasis on their potential as future diagnostic biomarkers and treatment vectors in cancer biology. Their alignment with the development of exosomal databases is further examined in this review, in view of the accumulation of studies published on exosomes in the past decade.

Expression profile of long noncoding RNAs in cartilage from knee osteoarthritis patients

OBJECTIVES

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have emerged as a novel class of regulatory molecules involved in various biological processes, but their role in osteoarthritis (OA) remains unknown. Therefore, we aimed to reveal lncRNAs expression profile in human osteoarthritic cartilage and explore the potential functions of lncRNAs in OA.

METHODS

The expression profiles of lncRNAs and mRNAs in OA cartilage were obtained using microarray and verified by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Bioinformatics analyses including lncRNA classification and subgroup analysis, gene ontology (GO) analysis, pathway analysis, network analysis and target prediction were performed.

RESULTS

There were 3007 upregulated lncRNAs and 1707 downregulated lncRNAs in OA cartilage compared with normal samples (Fold change ≥ 2.0). In addition, 2136 mRNAs were upregulated and 2,241 mRNAs were downregulated in OA cartilage (Fold change ≥ 2.0). The qRT-PCR results of six dysregulated lncRNAs were consistent with the microarray data. 106 lncRNAs and 291 mRNAs composed the coding-non-coding gene co-expression network (CNC network). In the 600 top differentially expressed lncRNAs, 48 lncRNAs were predicted to have more than five cis-regulated target genes and up to 530 lncRNAs might regulate their trans target genes through collaboration with transcriptional factor (TF) SP1. The positive correlation between lncRNA uc.343 and predicted target homeobox gene C8 (HOXC8) expression in SW1353 cells treating with interleukin-1 beta confirmed the target prediction to some extent.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed the expression pattern of lncRNAs in OA cartilage and predicted the potential function and targets, which indicated that lncRNAs may be new biomarkers for diagnosis or novel therapeutic targets of OA.

MicroRNA-320 regulates matrix metalloproteinase-13 expression in chondrogenesis and interleukin-1β-induced chondrocyte responses

OBJECTIVE

Metalloproteinases (MMPs) are key regulators of osteoarthritis (OA) and collagen degradation and have been shown to participate in endochondral ossification. The aim of this study was to determine whether microRNA-320 (miR-320) regulates the expression of MMP-13 in chondrogenesis and inflammation.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

miR-320 expression was assessed in vitro, in the ATDC5 cell model of chondrogenesis and in interleukin-1β (IL-1β)-treated primary mouse chondrocytes (PMCs), and in vivo, in normal and OA human cartilage by in situ hybridization. ATDC5 and PMCs were transfected with miR-320 or its antisense inhibitor (anti-miR-320), respectively. The roles of activated MAP kinases (MAPK) and NF-κB were evaluated by using specific inhibitors. Direct interaction between miR-320 and its putative binding site in the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of Mmp-13 mRNA was confirmed by the luciferase reporter assay.

RESULTS

miR-320 expression was elevated in chondrogenic and hypertrophic ATDC5, while significantly reduced in OA cartilage compared with normal cartilage. Stimulation with IL-1β led to a significant reduction in miR-320 expression in PMCs. Upregulation of MMP-13 expression was correlated with downregulation of miR-320 expression in both PMCs and ATDC5. Overexpression of miR-320 suppressed the activity of a reporter construct containing the 3'-UTR and inhibited MMP-13 expression in both ATDC5 and IL-1β-treated PMCs, while treatment with anti-miR-320 enhanced MMP-13 expression. NF-κB and MAPK activation downregulated miR-320 expression.

CONCLUSION

Cartilage development and homeostasis are influenced by miR-320, which directly targets MMP-13 and regulates chondrogenesis and the IL-1β-stimulated catabolic effect in mouse chondrocytes.

Mapping the distribution of the outer hair cell motility voltage sensor by electrical amputation

The outer hair cell (OHC) possesses a nonlinear charge movement whose characteristics indicate that it represents the voltage sensor responsible for OHC mechanical activity. OHC mechanical activity is known to exist along a restricted extent of the cell's length. We have used a simultaneous partitioning microchamber and whole cell voltage clamp technique to electrically isolate sections of the OHC membrane and find that the nonlinear charge movement is also restricted along the cell's length. Apical and basal portions of the OHC are devoid of voltage sensors, corresponding to regions of the cell where the subsurface cisternae and/or the mechanical responses are absent. We conclude that the physical domain of the motility voltage sensor corresponds to that of the mechanical effector and speculate that sensor and effector reside within one intra membranous molecular species, perhaps an evolved nonconducting or poorly conducting voltage-dependent ion channel.

The prevalence of schizophrenia in mainland China: evidence from epidemiological surveys

OBJECTIVE

Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder. Its prevalence appears inconsistent in different regions of China; thus, we conducted this meta-analysis to estimate the prevalence of schizophrenia in mainland China.

METHOD

Studies on the prevalence of schizophrenia in mainland China were identified from electronic databases up to July 2013. Meta-analysis was used for prevalence of schizophrenia estimate.

RESULTS

For lifetime prevalence of schizophrenia, prevalence of 5.44 per 1000 (overall), 5.33 per 1000 (males), 5.51 per 1000 (females), 6.60 per 1000 (urban) and 4.73 per 1000 (rural) were estimated; there was no significant difference between males and females, while prevalence for urban dwellers was higher than for rural (OR=1.44, 95%CI: 1.30-1.59). For point prevalence of schizophrenia, prevalence of 4.62 per 1000 (overall), 4.63 per 1000 (males), 4.95 per 1000 (females), 5.15 per 1000 (urban) and 4.44 per 1000 (rural) were estimated; no statistical difference was found in males and females, but prevalence for urban dwellers was higher than for rural (OR=1.20; 95%CI: 1.02-1.41).

CONCLUSION

The prevalence estimate results were consistent with the international prevalence estimate of schizophrenia in mainland China. There was no significant difference between males and females, while prevalence for urban dwellers was higher than for rural.

Distinct roles of lymphotoxin alpha and the type I tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor in the establishment of follicular dendritic cells from non-bone marrow-derived cells

In mice deficient in either lymphotoxin alpha (LT-alpha) or type I tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR-I), organized clusters of follicular dendritic cells (FDC) and germinal centers (GC) are absent from the spleen. We investigated the role of LT-alpha and TNFR-I in the establishment of spleen FDC and GC structure by using reciprocal bone marrow (BM) transfer. When LT-alpha-deficient mice were reconstituted with wild-type BM, FDC organization and the ability to form GC were restored, indicating that the LT-alpha-expressing cells required to establish organized FDC are derived from BM. The role of LT-alpha in establishing organized FDC structure was further investigated by the transfer of complement receptor 1 and 2 (CR1/2)-deficient BM cells into LT-alpha-deficient mice. Organized FDC were identified with both the FDC-M1 and anti-CR1 monoclonal antibodies in these BM-chimeric mice, indicating that these cells were derived from the LT-alpha-deficient recipient. Thus, expression of LT-alpha in the BM-derived cells, but not in the non-BM-derived cells, is required for the maturation of FDC from non-BM precursor cells. In contrast, when TNFR-I-deficient mice were reconstituted with wild-type BM, they showed no detectable FDC clusters or GC formation. This indicates that TNFR-I expression on non-BM-derived cellular components is necessary for the establishment of these lymphoid structures. TNFR-I-deficient BM was able to restore FDC organization and GC formation in LT-alpha-deficient mice, indicating that formation of these structures does not require TNFR-I expression on BM-derived cells. The data in this study demonstrate that FDC organization and GC formation are controlled by both LT-alpha-expressing BM-derived cells and by TNFR-I-expressing non-BM-derived cells.

Phox homology domains specifically bind phosphatidylinositol phosphates

The recruitment of specific cytosolic proteins to intracellular membranes through binding phosphorylated derivatives of phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) controls such processes as endocytosis, regulated exocytosis, cytoskeletal organization, and cell signaling. Protein modules such as FVYE domains and PH domains that bind specifically to PtdIns 3-phosphate (PtdIns-3-P) and polyphosphoinositides, respectively, can direct such membrane targeting. Here we show that two representative Phox homology (PX) domains selectively bind to specific phosphatidylinositol phosphates. The PX domain of Vam7p selectively binds PtdIns-3-P, while the PX domain of the CPK PI-3 kinase selectively binds PtdIns-4,5-P(2). In contrast, the PX domain of Vps5p displays no binding to any PtdInsPs that were tested. In addition, the double mutant (Y42A/L48Q) of the PX domain of Vam7p, reported to cause vacuolar trafficking defects in yeast, has a dramatically decreased level of binding to PtdIns-3-P. These data reveal that the membrane targeting function of the Vam7p PX domain is based on its ability to associate with PtdIns-3-P, analogous to the function of FYVE domains.

Retention and relapse in clinical practice

Maintaining teeth in their corrected positions following orthodontic treatment can be extremely challenging. Teeth have a tendency to move back towards the original malocclusion as a result of periodontal, gingival, occlusal and growth related factors. However, tooth movement can also occur as a result of normal age changes. Because orthodontics is unable to predict which patients are at risk of relapse, those which will remain stable and the extent of relapse that will occur in the long-term, clinicians need to treat all patients as if they have a high potential to relapse. To reduce this risk, long term retention is advocated. This can be a significant commitment for patients, and so retention and the potential for relapse must form a key part of the informed consent process prior to orthodontic treatment. It is vital that patients are made fully aware of their responsibilities in committing to wear retainers as prescribed in order to reduce the chance of relapse. If patients are unable or unwilling to comply as prescribed, they must be prepared to accept that there will be tooth positional changes following treatment. There is currently insufficient high quality evidence regarding the best type of retention or retention regimen, and so each clinician's approach will be affected by their personal, clinical experience and expertise, and guided by their patients' expectations and circumstances.

Diet and brain cancer in adults: a case-control study in northeast China

A hospital-based case-control study was conducted in the Heilongjiang Province of northeast China between May 1993 and May 1995. A total of 129 histologically confirmed brain cancer cases (73 gliomas and 56 meningiomas) and 258 matched controls were interviewed in 6 major hospitals to examine the influence of dietary factors in developing brain cancer. Information was obtained about frequency of consumption of 57 food items. Odds ratios (ORs) were obtained from conditional logistic regression, including allowance for socio-demographic factors, alcohol, tobacco and total energy intake. Consumption of fresh vegetables (OR = 0.29 for the highest quartile compared with the lowest one), and specifically of Chinese cabbage and onion, fruit (OR = 0.15), fresh fish (OR = 0.38) and poultry (OR = 0.16) was inversely related to the risk of developing brain cancer. A protective effect was also seen for vitamin E intake, calcium and, although non-significantly, beta-carotene and vitamin C. Risk of brain cancer increased with consumption of salted vegetables (OR = 2.54) and salted fish.

Detection and differentiation of CAV-1 and CAV-2 by polymerase chain reaction

Canine adenovirus type 1 (CAV-1) and type 2 (CAV-2) can be categorized in the laboratory by haemagglutination and neutralization tests, but they are difficult to differentiate from each other in specimens, especially when infection occurs in the digestive tract. The object of this study was to develop a simple method of detecting and differentiating them. One pair of common primers was designed and synthesized according to the sequences of the E3 and flanking regions and a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay was established using these two primers to amplify the virus-specific DNA fragment from clinical specimens as well as from cell cultures. After elecctrophoresis, under the same amplification conditions, 508 bp and 1030 bp PCR products were observed for CAV-1 and CAV-2, respectively. These were further shown to be adenovirus specific by dot hybridization and sequencing. As only one pair of primers was involved in the PCR procedure, it was faster and easier to perform than any of the other assays used for detecting canine adenovirus, making it applicable in the rapid confirmation of diagnosis and differentiation of the two types of canine adenoviruses.

A comparison study of the reference curves of bone mineral density at different skeletal sites in native Chinese, Japanese, and American Caucasian women

To understand the differences among reference curves for bone mineral density (BMD) for Chinese, Japanese, and American Caucasian women, we measured the BMD at the anteroposterior (AP) lumbar spine (L1-L4), lateral lumbar spine (L2-L4), hip (including the femoral neck, trochanter, intertrochanter, Ward's triangle, and total hip), and ultradistal forearm by the dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in a total of 2728 healthy Chinese women, aged 5-96 years. Documented BMD data for Japanese women and device manufacturer's BMD new reference databases (including the NHANES III dataset) for American Caucasian women were also used in this study. The cubic regression model was found to fit best in analyzing the age-associated variations of BMD at various sites in Chinese women, i.e., the equations had the largest coefficient of determination (R2). At the AP/Lat spine, trochanter, intertrochanter, and Ward's triangle, BMD reference curves for Chinese women were lower than those for Japanese or Caucasian women, while at the femoral neck, total hip, and ultradistal forearm, the reference curves for Chinese women were higher than those for Japanese women, with overlaps and crossing of the curves for some age spans in comparing the Chinese and Caucasian women. There were significant differences in the peak BMD (PBMD) at various sites among the Chinese, Japanese, and Caucasian women (P = 0.000). The PBMDs for Chinese women at the lumbar spine and various sites of the hip were 5.7% +/- 2.1% (mean +/- SD, range, 2.7-7.9%) lower than those for Japanese women and 5.1% +/- 2.7% (range, 0.5-7.2%) lower than those for Caucasian women; however, the PBMDs for Chinese women were 26.2% higher than those for Japanese women and 10% higher than those for Caucasian women at the ultradistal forearm. After the PBMD, average T-scores of Chinese women for losses at the AP lumbar spine with increasing age were nearly identical to those for Japanese women, but both were greater than those for Caucasian women. The average T-scores for BMD loss at various sites in Chinese women were higher than those for both Japanese and Caucasian women except at the femoral neck, where the T-scores of Chinese women were exceeded by those of both Japanese and Caucasian women. Estimated from the T-score curve of BMD loss, the age of osteoporosis occurrence at the femoral neck in Chinese women was about 10 years later than that in Japanese or Caucasian women; at the AP spine, Chinese women were similar to Japanese women; at the other sites, the age for occurrence of osteoporosis in Chinese women was about 5-15 years earlier than that in either Japanese or Caucasian women. There are differences in prevalence or odds ratio (OR) of osteoporosis at the same skeletal region for Chinese, Japanese, and Caucasian women aged > or = 50 years or at different skeletal regions in women of the same race. The prevalences of osteoporosis at various regions of the hip in Chinese women are 10.1-19.8% and ORs are 22.0-32.3, of which prevalence at the femoral neck is the lowest (10.1%); the prevalences of osteoporosis in Japanese women are 11.6-16.8% and ORs are 21.1-26.3, of which prevalence at the femoral neck is the lowest (11.6%); and the prevalences of osteoporosis in Caucasian women are 13.0-20.0% and ORs are 19.4-48.9, of which prevalence at the femoral neck is the highest (20%). In conclusion, racial differences in BMD reference curves, prevalences, and risks of osteoporosis at various skeletal sites exist among native Chinese, Japanese, and American Caucasian women.

Dietary patterns are associated with prevalence of fatty liver disease in adults

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Previous studies have indicated that higher levels of food consumption are associated with fatty liver disease (FLD), but few studies have investigated the relationship between this disease and different dietary patterns. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to examine the association between dietary patterns and FLD in adults.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

Dietary intakes of participants in the Tianjin were assessed via questionnaire. Factor analysis was used to identify dietary patterns, and FLD was defined as having a FLD diagnosis using liver ultrasonography. Relationships between dietary patterns and FLD were assessed using multiple logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

Female participants in the highest quartile of high-carbohydrate/sweet pattern scores had a 2.19-fold greater risk (95% confidence interval (CI), 1.40-3.46) of developing non-alcoholic FLD (NAFLD) than those in the lowest quartile after adjusting for confounding factors. No significant differences were found between any dietary pattern and NAFLD in males. In males, a significantly increasing trend of alcoholic FLD (AFLD) prevalence was associated with increasing high-protein/cholesterol pattern scores (P for trend = 0.03; odds ratio (OR), 2.08; 95% CI, 1.15-3.81) while an increased high-carbohydrate/sweet pattern score appeared protective against AFLD (P for trend = 0.02; OR, 0.55; 95% CI, 0.29-1.00).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrates that high-protein/cholesterol pattern scores are associated with higher prevalence of AFLD in males. We also show high-carbohydrate/sweet pattern scores are associated with higher prevalence of NAFLD in females; but, interestingly, this pattern shows a favorable effect on AFLD in males.