Diagnosis and control of peste des petits ruminants: a comprehensive review

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an acute, highly contagious, world organization for animal health (OIE) notifiable and economically important transboundary viral disease of sheep and goats associated with high morbidity and mortality and caused by PPR virus. PPR is considered as one of the main constraints in augmenting the productivity of small ruminants in developing countries and particularly severely affects poor farmer's economy. The disease is clinically manifested by pyrexia, oculo-nasal discharges, necrotizing and erosive stomatitis, gastroenteritis, diarrhoea and bronchopneumonia. The disease can be diagnosed from its clinical signs, pathological lesions, and specific detection of virus antigen/antibodies/genome in the clinical samples by various serological tests and molecular assays. PPR is the one of the priority animal diseases whose control is considered important for poverty alleviation in enzootic countries. Availability of effective and safe live attenuated cell culture PPR vaccines and diagnostics have boosted the recently launched centrally sponsored control programme in India and also in other countries. This review article primarily focus on the current scenario of PPR diagnosis and its control programme with advancement of research areas that have taken place in the recent years with future perspectives.

The Cortisol Response to Normal and Nocturnal Awakening

Abstract Free cortisol as measured in saliva increases markedly following awakening. It is not clear, however, whether this is truly a stress-neuroendocrine response to awakening or a manifestation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) circadian cycle. We investigated whether the awakening cortisol response can be generated in the middle of nocturnal sleep, when secretory activity in the HPA axis is low. In a within subject design, salivary cortisol response was measured under three different awakening conditions: (1) awakening at the normal morning awakening time; (2) awakening four hours prior to normal awakening time, and (3) awakening the following morning after interrupted sleep. The overall main effect was a linear increase in free cortisol following awakening with no significant interaction with awakening condition. Cortisol levels, as determined by area under the cortisol curve calculated with reference to zero, did differ by awakening condition. The two morning awakening conditions were comparable but values were lower for night awakening. Area under the curve change (calculated with reference to the first awakening cortisol base value), however, did not distinguish the three awakening conditions. We conclude from these data that there is a clear free cortisol response to awakening for both nocturnal and morning awakening although the absolute levels produced are lower for nocturnal awakening when basal cortisol is low. Nocturnal interruption of sleep did not affect the subsequent morning response.

Short-chain fatty acids inhibit fluid and electrolyte loss induced by cholera toxin in proximal colon of rabbit in vivo

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), acetate, propionate, and butyrate, are produced by bacterial fermentation in the colon and stimulate Na+ and Cl- absorption. We have studied the effects of SCFA on fluid and electrolyte absorption during cholera toxin (CT) -induced colonic secretion in rabbit, using a steady-state perfusion technique with marker (PEG) dilution. Perfusion with SCFA significantly (P < 0.01) reduced colonic water secretion. Butyrate reduced water secretion the most (95%), followed by propionate (90%), and acetate (80%). Butyrate significantly (P < 0.001) reduced secretions of Na+ (95.5%), K+ (75.2%), and Cl-(80.7%) ions but not HCO3- ions. Propionate similarly reduced secretion of HCO3-(45.3%). Acetate significantly (P < 0.001) inhibited Na+ (76.4%) and Cl- (75.7%) secretion, but the inhibitions of K+ (23.6%) and HCO3 (28.8%) were not significantly different from the controls. We conclude that SCFA reduce CT-induced water and electrolyte secretion in the rabbit proximal colon, and its potential as an antidiarrheal agent should be further evaluated.

Silicone granulomatous reactions after first metatarsophalangeal hemiarthroplasty

We reviewed 55 patients (78 feet) who had undergone silicone hemiarthroplasty of the first metatarsophalangeal joint for hallux valgus (40) or hallux rigidus (38). At a mean period of 4.5 years (1 to 11), 56 feet had radiological evidence suggestive of silicone granulomatous disease. The frequency and severity of the changes increased with time from the operation. Histological material from three revisions confirmed the presence of silicone granulomata. We recommend that the operation of silicone hemiarthroplasty for hallux valgus and hallux rigidus be abandoned.

Methods for studying the binding of aluminum by serum protein

We describe methods for studying the binding of Al by protein in serum: ultrafiltration, gel filtration, and immuno-affinity chromatography. For ultrafiltration we used an Amicon YM10 cellophane membrane with a nominal cutoff of 10 000 Da to separate ultrafiltrable and non-ultrafiltrable Al. For gel filtration we used Sephacryl S-300, and for immuno-affinity chromatography we used anti-transferrin coupled to CNBr-activated Sepharose to identify the Al-binding protein. For 30 normal subjects 54% of the total Al in serum was non-ultrafiltrable; for 30 patients with chronic renal failure being treated by hemodialysis 67% was non-ultrafiltrable. In both groups transferrin was identified as the major Al-binding protein in the serum. Results of gel-filtration studies should be interpreted with caution: some gel media adsorb "free" Al, which can be subsequently taken up by transferrin or desferrioxamine passing through the column. We find affinity chromatography to be a specific and reliable method, suitable for use in quantitative studies.

Development of an improved animal model of shigellosis in the adult rabbit by colonic infection with Shigella flexneri 2a

Rabbits are not usually susceptible to intestinal Shigella infection without extensive pretreatment, including starvation and administration of antimicrobial, antimotility, and toxic agents (carbon tetrachloride). Most animals infected this way die rapidly and do not always develop colonic lesions and signs of dysentery. We describe here a successful experimental infection in the adult rabbit which does not require preparatory treatment and which reproduced characteristic features of human shigellosis. Unstarved, untreated adult rabbits were infected by direct inoculation of virulent Shigella flexneri 2a (10 ml of 10(7) bacteria per ml) into the proximal colon after ligation of the distal cecum (cecal bypass). Within 24 h of infection, most inoculated animals consistently developed clinical dysentery, characterized by liquid stool mixed with mucus and blood, leukocytosis, anorexia, and weight loss. Histologically, there were edema, exudation, superficial ulceration, and polymorphonuclear infiltrations in the lamina propria; crypt abscess formation; focal hemorrhages; and the presence of immunohistochemically stained S. flexneri in the colonic mucosa. Successful bacterial colonization was indicated by the isolation of the challenge strain of S. flexneri 2a from the colonic contents. None of the control rabbits challenged with nonvirulent S. flexneri or without cecal bypass developed dysentery or colitis. We conclude that successful Shigella infection can be induced by direct colonic inoculation with virulent S. flexneri 2a in adult rabbits without starvation and pretreatment. The colitis is dependent on the virulence of the bacteria and on the cecal bypass. This model should be useful in studies of the immunopathogenesis of Shigella infection.

Staphylococcus aureus spa type t267, clonal ancestor of bovine subclinical mastitis in India

AIM

To evaluate the virulence determinants and genetic diversity of Staphylococcus aureus from bovine subclinical mastitis milk.

METHODS AND RESULTS

PCR detection of virulence genes was performed for 173 Staph. aureus from bovine subclinical mastitis milk. Further, genetic diversity was analysed by agr and spa typing followed by pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) of selected isolates. Screening of virulence genes (n = 19) showed the adherence genes viz. fnbA, clfA, fnbB and cna in 98·8, 97·1, 68·8 and 28·3 percentage of isolates, respectively, and 80 strains (46·24%) positive for enterotoxin genes were distributed as 23 toxinotypes, of which, 5 genotypes contained a single gene and the rest comprised of multiple toxin genes. Out of agr type-1 (87·3%), 74·2 per cent belonged to the three predominant spa types. Of 27 spa types, 11 were identified for the first time. The predominant spa types were t267 (N =44), t359 (N = 42) and t6877 (N =29), which together accounts to 66·5 per cent of isolates. PFGE analysis of isolates (N = 45) covering all the spa types revealed mostly similar or closely related pulsotypes. Local emergence of spa type t6877 in herd-dependant manner was observed. spa sequence-based phylogenetic analysis suggested t267 as the ancestral clone of t359, t6877 and other spa types except two.

CONCLUSION

Heterogenous virulence profile of the isolates had no significant association with the genotype. High prevalence of agr group I reaffirms their association with persistent subclinical mastitis. The spa type t267 appears to be the ancestral clone endemic in the region causing subclinical mastitis. In addition, few new spa types have emerged in the geographic region.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY

Gives an insight into the genetic and evolutionary behaviour of Staph. aureus associated with bovine subclinical mastitis in India. The study would pave the way for devising effective control strategy for bovine mastitis in Indian context.

Interruption of rotavirus spread through chemical disinfection

INTRODUCTION

Rotaviruses, which are among the most important infectious causes of acute diarrhea, frequently cause outbreaks in hospitals, daycare centers, schools, and nursing homes. These viruses can remain viable on inanimate surfaces for many days and infectious rotavirus particles have been recovered from hands and a variety of surfaces and objects. Casual contact can lead to the transfer of these viruses from contaminated to clean surfaces. Therefore, animate and inanimate surfaces may play a complementary role in the spread of these viruses.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we compared the capacity of a disinfectant spray (0.1% o-phenylphenol and 79% ethanol), a domestic bleach (6% sodium hypochlorite diluted to give 800 ppm free chlorine), a quarternary ammonium (quat)-based product (7.05% quat diluted 1:128 in tap water), and a phenol-based product (14.7% phenol diluted 1:256 in tap water) to interrupt the transfer of a human rotavirus (DS-1) from stainless steel disks to fingerpads of volunteers with a 10-second contact at a pressure of 1 kg/cm2.

DESIGN

Each disk received a 10 microL inoculum containing 1.0 x 10(4) to 7.0 x 10(4) plaque-forming units (PFU) of the virus suspended in 10% feces. The inoculum was dried for 1 hour and overlaid with 20 microL of either tap water or the test product.

RESULTS

A 10-minute exposure to tap water reduced the virus titer by 52.3% +/- 11.7%. The disinfectant spray was able to reduce virus infectivity by > 99.99% after a contact of 3 to 10 minutes. The loss in virus infectivity after a 10-minute treatment with the quat was almost the same (54.7% +/- 17.8%) as seen with tap water. The activities of the bleach and the phenolic were very similar with losses in PFU of 97.9% +/- 0.4% and 95% +/- 5.36%, respectively. No detectable virus was transferred to fingerpads from disks treated with disinfectant spray, the bleach, and the phenolic. Contact of the fingerpads with tap water- or quat-treated disks resulted in the transfer of 5.6% +/- 1.1% and 7.6% +/- 2.5% of the remaining infectious virus, respectively.

CONCLUSION

These findings emphasize the care needed in the selection of environmental surface disinfectants in preventing the spread of rotaviral infections.

Microsatellite DNA and RAPD fingerprinting, identification and genetic relationships of hybrid poplar (Populus x canadensis) cultivars

Microsatellite DNA markers of ten SSR loci and 248 RAPD loci (resolved by 26 RAPD primers) were used for DNA fingerprinting and differentiation of 17 widely grown Populus x canadensis syn. Populus x euramericana (interspecific Populus deltoides x Populus nigra hybrids) cultivars ("Baden 431", "Blanc du Poitou", "Canada Blanc", "Dorskamp 925", "Eugenei", "Gelrica", "Grandis", "Heidemij", "I-55/56", "I-132/56", "I-214", "Jacometti", "Ostia", "Regenerata", "Robusta", "Steckby" and "Zurich 03/3"), and determination of their genetic interrelationships. Informativeness of microsatellite and RAPD markers was also evaluated in comparison with allozyme markers for clone/cultivar identification in P. x canadensis. High microsatellite DNA and RAPD genetic diversity was observed in the sampled cultivars. All of the 17 P. x canadensis cultivars could be differentiated by their multilocus genotypes at four SSR loci, and were heterozygous for their parental species-specific alleles at the PTR6 SSR locus. Except for "Canada Blanc" and "Ostia", which had identical RAPD patterns, all cultivars could also be differentiated by RAPD fingerprints produced by each of the two RAPD primers, OPA07 and OPB15. For microsatellites, the mean number of alleles, polymorphic information content, observed heterozygosity, observed number of genotypes and the number of cultivars with unique genotypes per locus was 5.2, 0.64, 0.67, 5.7 and 2.2, respectively. For RAPD markers, the number of haplotypes per locus, and the number of cultivars with unique RAPD profiles per locus were 1.06 and 0.72, respectively. Overall, microsatellite DNA markers were the most informative for DNA fingerprinting of P. x canadensis cultivars. On the per locus basis, microsatellites were about six-times more informative than RAPD markers and about nine-times more informative than allozyme markers. However, on the per primer basis, RAPD markers were more informative. The UPGMA cluster plots separated the 17 cultivars into two major groups based on their microsatellite genotypic similarities, and into three major groups based on their RAPD fragment similarities. Both the microsatellite and RAPD data suggest that the cultivars "Baden 431", "Heidemij", "Robusta" and "Steckby" are genetically closely related. The inter-cultivar genetic relationships from microsatellite DNA and RAPD markers were consistent with those observed from allozyme markers, and were in general agreement with their speculated origin. Microsatellite DNA and RAPD markers could be used for clone and cultivar identification, varietal control and registration, and stock handling in P. x canadensis.

Measuring the impact of needle exchange programs among injecting drug users through the National Behavioural Surveillance in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a low HIV prevalence country, with buprenorphine injectors having the highest prevalence of HIV at 2.5% as of 1999. Using National HIV Behavioral Surveillance data, the impact of a needle exchange program (NEP) on sharing behavior among injecting drug users in two cities was measured. Results showed positive changes that varied with the different settings. Those who reported utilizing the NEP were compared with those who did not. Differences in Dhaka were significant for the average proportion of needles shared but not for the proportion of men who ever shared in the last week. In Rajshahi, where professional injectors were the norm, the impact of an NEP was greater and affected both the proportion of needles shared as well as the proportion of men never sharing. Behavioral surveillance methods have the potential to measure intervention impact through comparative analysis in certain settings.

Prevalence of Peste-des-petits-ruminant virus antibodies in cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats in India

The present study describes the prevalence of Peste-des-petits-ruminant virus (PPRV) antibodies in cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats carried out during the period 2011 using the serum samples randomly collected from different villages of five states of India. A total of 1,498 serum samples [n = 605 (cattle); n = 432 (buffaloes); n = 173 (sheep); n = 288 (goats)] were collected from 52 districts in five states (Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Maharashtra and Rajasthan) of India and were screened for PPRV-specific antibodies by using PPR monoclonal antibody-based competitive ELISA kit. Analysis of 1,498 samples indicates that an overall seroprevalence of 21.83 % with 11.07 % in cattle, 16.20 % in buffaloes, 45.66 % in sheep and 38.54 % in goats. This report presents the results of PPRV-specific antibodies in situations where the subclinical, inapparent or nonlethal or recovery of infection was suspected in cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats. The presence of PPRV antibodies demonstrate that bovines are exposed to PPRV infection and it implies the importance of cattle and buffaloes as subclinical hosts for the virus besides widespread presence of the disease in sheep and goats. Further, the study showed that the prevalence of PPRV antibodies in apparently healthy livestock under natural situation, 21.83 % of the animals were protected from PPRV re-infection. This inturn help in the implementation of disease control strategies such as vaccination in that particular geographical area.

The critical period for ethanol effects on cholinergic neuronal expression in neuroblast-enriched cultures derived from 3-day-old chick embryo: NGF ameliorates the cholinotoxic effects of ethanol

Studies from our laboratory have established that ethanol exerts morphological and biochemical neurotoxic effects during early neuroembryogenesis in the chick brain both in ovo and in culture. In the present study, we further localized the critical period for ethanol effects on cholinergic neuronal expression using neuroblast-enriched cultures derived from 3-day-old chick embryos. Moreover, we report that NGF attenuated the cholinotoxic effects of ethanol. We used the following experimental paradigms: cultures treated with ethanol alone either C0-C3 or C4-C10; NGF alone C0-C4 or C4-C10; ethanol and NGF given concomitantly; ethanol given first then replaced with NGF in the medium; or NGF given first then replaced with ethanol in the medium. The results revealed: (1) the cholinotoxic effect of ethanol occurs between culture days C0 and C4 with day 3 appearing to be most critical; (2) similarly, the critical period for the cholinotoxic effects of NGF is during early neuroblast differentiation, culture days C0-C4; (3) NGF can prevent the cholinotoxic effects of ethanol only if both ethanol and NGF are given concomitantly or if ethanol is given first, then culture is replaced with NGF-containing medium.

'Free omental plug': a nostalgic look at an old and dependable technique for giant peptic perforations

Peptic perforation is a serious complication of peptic ulcer disease. The defect in the intestinal wall usually does not present a difficult technical problem of surgical management, in most cases perforation can be closed primarily. On rare occasions an extremely large defect (giant peptic perforation - defined as any perforation greater than 2.5 cm in size) cannot be closed by these simple techniques. Modalities of treatment advocated for such an ulcer over the years are: free omental plug in the form of a mushroom; serosal patch technique; jejunal pedicle graft, partial gastrectomy, and finally the possible addition of proximal gastrojejunostomy. The omental plug is a simple procedure which does not require expertise and can even be performed in a very short time by a trainee general surgeon in a seriously ill patient in emergency. We review 7 cases of giant peptic perforations closed by a free omental plug.

Molecular characterization of intra-population variability of Jatropha curcas L. using DNA based molecular markers

Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae) has acquired a great importance as a renewable source of energy with a number of environmental benefits. Very few attempts were made to understand the extent of genetic diversity of J. curcas germplasm. In the present study, efforts were made to analyze the genetic diversity among the elite germplasms of J. curcas, selected on the basis of their performance in field using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and simple sequence repeats (SSR). The plants were selected on the basis of height, canopy circumference, number of seeds per fruit, weight of 100 seeds, seed yield in grams per plant and oil content. Out of 250 RAPD (with 26 primers), 822 AFLP (with 17 primers) and 19 SSR band classes, 141, 346 and 7 were found to be polymorphic, respectively. The percentage polymorphism among the selected germplasms using RAPD, AFLP and SSR was found to be 56.43, 57.9, and 36.84, respectively. The Jaccard's similarity coefficient was found 0.91, 0.90 and 0.91 through RAPD, AFLP and SSR marker systems, respectively. Principle component analysis (PCA) and dendrogarm analysis of genetic relationship among the germplasm using RAPD, AFLP and SSR data showed a good correlation for individual markers. The germplasm JCC-11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 whose yield found to be high were clustered together in dendrogram and PCA analysis though JCC11 is geographically distinct from others. In overall analysis JCC6 (in RAPD), JCC8 (in AFLP) and JCC 6 and JCC10 (in SSR) were found genetically diverse. Characterization of geographically distinct and genetically diverse germplasms with varied yield characters is an important step in marker assisted selection (MAS) and it can be useful for breeding programs and QTL mapping.

Physiological predictors of death in exsanguinating trauma patients undergoing conventional trauma surgery

BACKGROUND

Severe truncal multi trauma patients often develop coagulopathy, acidosis and hypothermia that makes major reparative trauma surgery dangerous. It was aimed to try to develop physiological indicators that would predict a poor outcome when conventional reparative surgery was applied. These indicators may help in the decision to switch from conventional reparative surgery to surgery limited to the control of major haemorrhage or organ disruption: so-called 'damage-control' surgery.

METHOD

A retrospective review was conducted of 40 patients with severe multivisceral trauma (Injury Severity Score (ISS) > 35) who were admitted to the intensive care unit at Waikato Hospital and who underwent conventional reparative surgery.

RESULTS

Survival was strongly associated with base deficit (BD), core temperature and ISS. Using multiple logistic regression on these indices, outcome could be predicted with 92.5% accuracy (sensitivity = 93%, specificity = 92%, positive predictive value for death = 96%). Either severe hypothermia (< 33 degrees C) or severe acidosis (BD > 12 mEq/L), or a combination of moderate core temperature < 35.5 degrees C, and a BD of > 5 mEq/L were strong predictors of death if conventional reparative surgery was practised.

CONCLUSIONS

At the above mentioned levels of physiological compromise, patient survival after conventional trauma surgery can be predicted to be very unlikely. Damage-control measures would be worth attempting.

Lead poisoning in infancy--unusual causes in the U.A.E

Six infants, three of them neonates, were diagnosed as having acute lead poisoning; four of them had acute encephalopathy. All had been given an indigenous preparation, 'Bint Al Zahab' (Daughter of Gold), for abdominal colic and early passage of meconium after birth. Chemical analysis of this powder revealed a lead content of 82.5%. The index case had anaemia with punctate basophilia, dense metaphysial lines on X-ray and markedly raised blood lead levels, arousing a strong index of suspicion for the early diagnosis of subsequent cases. Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan in three cases showed signs of early cerebral cortical atrophy. The picture of cerebral oedema was absent in the four cases of acute lead encephalopathy. The importance of prevention and the ideal management is discussed.

Landholding, wealth and risk of blinding malnutrition in rural Bangladeshi households

The 1982-1983 Bangladesh nutritional blindness study visited 11,618 rural households and examined 18,660 preschool-age children in an effort to determine the prevalence and determinants of eye lesions and loss of sight due to vitamin A deficiency (xerophthalmia). Risk of xerophthalmia was significantly higher for children from households without any of the indicators of relative wealth used. Almost 80% of blind children from landless households, and even a very small garden reduced considerably the chances of a household having a xerophthalmic child. Poorer households with access to less than 0.3 acres land or no garden or without a tin roof, wristwatch, radio or cycle were at least twice as likely as their more fortunate neighbours to have a young child with any type of xerophthalmia. Taking account of such socio-environmental risk factor weightings would direct the scarce resources of intervention programmes to households and children who most need them.

Factors influencing haematological measurements in healthy adults

By studying 516 healthy adults normal reference intervals were established for the Coulter "S" haematological indices with the plasma ferritin, B12, folate and red cell folate in a subgroup of 306. Significant sex related differences were found for all measurements other than MCV, MCH and B12. After allowing for these sex related differences, the effects of age, body size, fasting, smoking, alcohol, exercise and contraceptive pill usage on the parameters studied was defined.