Nanoparticles for the delivery of genes and drugs to human hepatocytes

Hepatitis B virus envelope L particles form hollow nanoparticles displaying a peptide that is indispensable for liver-specific infection by hepatitis B virus in humans. Here we demonstrate the use of L particles for the efficient and specific transfer of a gene or drug into human hepatocytes both in culture and in a mouse xenograft model. In this model, intravenous injection of L particles carrying the gene for green fluorescent protein (GFP) or a fluorescent dye resulted in observable fluorescence only in human hepatocellular carcinomas but not in other human carcinomas or in mouse tissues. When the gene encoding human clotting factor IX was transferred into the xenograft model using L particles, factor IX was produced at levels relevant to the treatment of hemophilia B. The yeast-derived L particle is free of viral genomes, highly specific to human liver cells and able to accommodate drugs as well as genes. These advantages should facilitate targeted delivery of genes and drugs to the human liver.

Membrane-anchored growth factors, the epidermal growth factor family: beyond receptor ligands

The epidermal growth factor (EGF) family and the EGF receptor (EGFR, ErbB) tyrosine kinase family have been spearheading the studies of signal transduction events that determine cell fate and behavior in vitro and in vivo. The EGFR family and their signaling pathways are giving us tremendous advantages in developing fascinating molecular target strategies for cancer therapy. Currently, two important types of EGFR inhibitors are in clinical use: neutralizing antibodies of EGFR or ErbB2, and synthetic small compounds of tyrosine kinase inhibitors designed for receptors. On the other hand, basic research of the EGF family ligands presents new challenges as membrane-anchored growth factors. All members of the EGF family have important roles in development and diseases and are shed from the plasma membrane by metalloproteases. The ectodomain shedding of the ligands has emerged as a critical component in the functional transactivation of EGFRs in interreceptor cross-talk in response to various shedding stimulants such as G-protein coupled receptor agonists, growth factors, cytokines, and various physicochemical stresses. Among the EGFR-ligands, heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HB-EGF) is a prominent ligand in our understanding of the pathophysiological roles of ectodomain shedding in cancer, wound healing, cardiac diseases, etc. Here we focus on ectodomain shedding of the EGF family ligands, especially HB-EGF by disintegrin and metalloproteases, which are not only key events of receptor cross talk, but also novel intercellular signaling by their carboxy-terminal fragments to regulate gene expression directly.

Physicochemical and immunological characterization of hepatitis B virus envelope particles exclusively consisting of the entire L (pre-S1 + pre-S2 + S) protein

The hepatitis B virus (HBV) envelope (env) protein is composed of three regions; the 108- or 119-residue pre-S1 region involved in the direct interaction with hepatocytes, the 55-residue pre-S2 region associated with the polymerized albumin-mediated interaction, and the major 226-residue S protein region. Thus, to improve the immunogenic potency of conventional HB vaccines, development of a new vaccine containing the entire pre-S1 region in addition to pre-S2 and S is desired. We previously reported the efficient production of the HBV env L (pre-S1 + pre-S2 + S) protein in the recombinant yeast cells [J Biol Chem 267 (1992) 1953]. In this study, the HBV env L protein produced as nano-particles in yeast has been purified and characterized. By equilibrium sedimentation, an average molecular weight of L particle was estimated to be approximately 6.4 x 10(6), indicating that about 110 molecules of L proteins are assembled into an L particle. By atomic force microscopy in a moist atmosphere, the L particles were observed as large spherical particles with a diameter of 50-500 nm. The L particles were stable on short-time heating at a high temperature and long-time storage at a low temperature but rather unstable on repeated freezing and thawing and treatment with dithiothreitol. When immunized in mice, L particles elicited efficiently and simultaneously the anti-S, anti-pre-S2, and anti-pre-S1 antibodies. The ED(50) values in mice for the anti-S and anti-pre-S2 antibodies were similar to those elicited by the M (pre-S2 + S) particles. Furthermore, the anti-pre-S1 rabbit antibodies were found to recognize various segments of the pre-S1 region, including the pre-S1 (21-47) segment. These results show the high ability of L particles to induce all antibodies against HBV env proteins, hence promising the future application of L particles for the next generation HB vaccine.

Size distribution measurement of vesicles by atomic force microscopy

Vesicles have been utilized as nanoscale vehicles for reagents including potential drug delivery systems. When used to deliver drugs, vesicle size and the size distribution are important factors in the determination of the dosage, cell specificity, and rate of clearance from the body. Current size measurement techniques for vesicles are electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering, but their results are not equal. Therefore atomic force microscopy was attempted as another size measurement technique. After adsorption of the vesicles from a low-concentration solution of vesicles on mica substrate, each vesicle is generally found as a flattened structure. The diameters of vesicles in these solutions and their distribution have been successfully estimated from the surface area of the flattened structure of each vesicle. At higher concentrations, we have found a monolayer crammed with dome-shaped vesicles on the substrate. The diameters of vesicles in these solutions have also been successfully estimated from the surface area of the dome-shaped structure of each vesicle. Diameters of vesicles in solution estimated from two different vesicle concentrations are not close to those reported by electron microscope studies but are close to those reported by dynamic light scattering studies.

The covalent structure of the small subunit from Pseudomonas putida amine dehydrogenase reveals the presence of three novel types of internal cross-linkages, all involving cysteine in a thioether bond

Pseudomonas putida contains an amine dehydrogenase that is called a quinohemoprotein as it contains a quinone and two hemes c as redox active groups. Amino acid sequence analysis of the smallest (8.5 kDa), quinone-cofactor-bearing subunit of this heterotrimeric enzyme encountered difficulties in the interpretation of the results at several sites of the polypeptide chain. As this suggested posttranslational modifications of the subunit, the structural genes for this enzyme were determined and mass spectrometric de novo sequencing was applied to several peptides obtained by chemical or enzymatic cleavage. In agreement with the interpretation of the X-ray electronic densities in the diffraction data for the holoenzyme, our results show that the polypeptide of the small subunit contains four intrachain cross-linkages in which the sulfur atom of a cysteine residue is involved. Two of these cross-linkages occur with the beta-carbon atom of an aspartic acid, one with the gamma-carbon atom of a glutamic acid and the fourth with a tryptophanquinone residue, this adduct constituting the enzyme's quinone cofactor, CTQ. The thioether type bond in all four of these adducts has never been found in other proteins. CTQ is a novel cofactor in the series of the recently discovered quinone cofactors.

HMGA2 as a potential molecular target in KMT2A-AFF1-positive infant acute lymphoblastic leukaemia

Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) in infants is an intractable cancer in childhood. Although recent intensive chemotherapy progress has considerably improved ALL treatment outcome, disease cure is often accompanied by undesirable long-term side effects, and efficient, less toxic molecular targeting therapies have been anticipated. In infant ALL cells with KMT2A (MLL) fusion, the microRNA let-7b (MIRLET7B) is significantly downregulated by DNA hypermethylation of its promoter region. We show here that the expression of HMGA2, one of the oncogenes repressed by MIRLET7B, is reversely upregulated in infant ALL leukaemic cells, particularly in KMT2A-AFF1 (MLL-AF4) positive ALL. In addition to the suppression of MIRLET7B, KMT2A fusion proteins positively regulate the expression of HMGA2. HMGA2 is one of the negative regulators of CDKN2A gene, which encodes the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p16(INK4A) . The HMGA2 inhibitor netropsin, when combined with demethylating agent 5-azacytidine, upregulated and sustained the expression of CDKN2A, which resulted in growth suppression of KMT2A-AFF1-expressing cell lines. This effect was more apparent compared to treatment with 5-azacytidine alone. These results indicate that the MIRLET7B-HMGA2-CDKN2A axis plays an important role in cell proliferation of leukaemic cells and could be a possible molecular target for the therapy of infant ALL with KMT2A-AFF1.

Novel dominant-negative mutant of GATA3 in HDR syndrome

HDR syndrome is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by hypoparathyroidism, sensorineural deafness, and renal anomaly caused by mutation of the GATA3 gene located at chromosome 10p15. We report the case of a neonate with HDR syndrome and a novel GATA3 mutation. We performed genetic and functional analysis of GATA3 in this patient and identified a novel heterozygous 1516G> C missense mutation in exon 5, resulting in a cysteine-to-serine substitution at codon 321 (Cys321Ser). Mutated and wild-type GATA3 proteins were expressed at a similar level in vitro, indicating that the mutated GATA3 protein was stable. Luciferase assay revealed that the Cys321Ser-mutated GATA3 lacked transactivation activity due to loss of DNA-binding activity as confirmed by gel shift assay. Moreover, mutated GATA3 exerted a dominant-negative effect over the transactivation activity of wild-type GATA3. These findings indicate that not only haploinsufficiency of GATA3 but also the dominant-negative effect of Cys321Ser-mutated GATA3 might have been responsible for the HDR syndrome phenotype of our patient.

Identification of enzyme responsible for erythritol utilization and reaction product in yeast Lipomyces starkeyi

We have identified the enzyme responsible for erythritol utilization and its reaction product in the yeast Lipomyces starkeyi CBS 1807. The enzyme, a polyol dehydrogenase requiring NAD+ as a coenzyme, was induced by erythritol in this yeast. We confirmed that the enzyme product was L-erythrulose by MS, NMR, and polarimeter analyses, meaning that we clarified the first step of erythritol utilization in yeasts for the first time. In the case of the oxidative reaction, D-threitol, (2R,3R)-2,3-butanediol, and erythritol were much better substrates than 21 other polyols tested. These three substrates are tetroses and have an R configuration at C-3, and whose third carbon results in easiest oxidation in this enzyme. The research of the substrate specificity in the reductive reaction demonstrated that L-erythrulose and dihydroxyacetone were better substrates, that D-acetoin was inactive and L-erythrose (aldose) was slightly active.

Detection of protein-protein interactions on SiO2/Si surfaces by spectroscopic ellipsometry

We have applied spectroscopic ellipsometry to sensitive detection of specific protein-protein interactions on SiO2/Si substrates. First, the change of ellipticity of the reflected polarized light (600-1100 nm) was correlated with the thickness of the protein layer immobilized on SiO2/Si surfaces by measuring monomeric (myoglobin) and homotetrameric (hemoglobin) proteins with a similar monomer size. Protein-protein interactions were then measured with the antigen/antibody and cell-surface receptor/ligand systems; in each system either of the two proteins was bound to SiO2/Si substrates. Consequently, significant ellipticity changes were observed only for the cases where the interactions were specific. A specific antibody binding was also detectable with an antigen displayed on the surface of bacteriophage particles. These results show the usefulness of spectroscopic ellipsometry for sensitive detection of protein-protein interactions and its applicability to a detection method for the protein-based biochips to be developed in the future.

Lineage-dependent skewing of loss of heterozygosity (LOH) of KRAS gene in a case of juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia

Juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia (JMML) is a clonal disease arising from abnormal hematopoietic stem cells, although the involvement of lymphoid lineage differs among reported cases. Here, we present a case of JMML with a KRAS G13D mutation. The mutation was detected in various hematopoietic lineages, including T and B lymphocytes and also in lineage(-) CD34(+) CD38(-) hematopoietic stem cells, showing a different percentage of affected cells in each lineage. Single cell-based analysis of hematopoietic cells revealed the loss of wild-type KRAS in a significant proportion of G13D-harboring cells. The percentage of loss of heterozygosity (LOH)/non-LOH cells showed lineage-dependent skewing in hematopoietic cells. The loss of the wild-type KRAS allele may be a common secondary genetic change in KRAS-related JMML and may affect the differentiation behavior of early JMML progenitors.