Recurrent Anthrax Outbreaks in Humans, Livestock, and Wildlife in the Same Locality, Kenya, 2014-2017

Epidemiologic data indicate a global distribution of anthrax outbreaks associated with certain ecosystems that promote survival and viability of Bacillus anthracis spores. Here, we characterized three anthrax outbreaks involving humans, livestock, and wildlife that occurred in the same locality in Kenya between 2014 and 2017. Clinical and epidemiologic data on the outbreaks were collected using active case finding and review of human, livestock, and wildlife health records. Information on temporal and spatial distribution of prior outbreaks in the area was collected using participatory epidemiology. The 2014-2017 outbreaks in Nakuru West subcounty affected 15 of 71 people who had contact with infected cattle (attack rate = 21.1%), including seven with gastrointestinal, six with cutaneous, and two with oropharyngeal forms of the disease. Two (13.3%) gastrointestinal human anthrax cases died. No human cases were associated with infected wildlife. Of the 54 cattle owned in 11 households affected, 20 died (attack rate = 37%). The 2015 outbreak resulted in death of 10.5% of the affected herbivorous wildlife at Lake Nakuru National Park, including 745 of 4,500 African buffaloes (species-specific mortality rate = 17%) and three of 18 endangered white rhinos (species-specific mortality rate = 16%). The species mortality rate ranged from 1% to 5% for the other affected wildlife species. Participatory epidemiology identified prior outbreaks between 1973 and 2011 in the same area. The frequency and severity of outbreaks in this area suggests that it is an anthrax hotspot ideal for investigating risk factors associated with long-term survival of anthrax spores and outbreak occurrence.

Identification and sequence characterization of novel Theileria genotypes from the waterbuck (Kobus defassa) in a Theileria parva-endemic area in Kenya

Waterbuck (Kobus defassa), an ungulate species endemic to the Eastern African savannah, is suspected of being a wildlife reservoir for tick-transmitted parasites infective to livestock. Waterbuck is infested by large numbers of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, the tick vector for Theileria parva, and previous data suggests that the species may be a source of T. parva transmission to cattle. In the present study, a total of 86 cattle and 26 waterbuck blood samples were obtained from Marula, a site in Kenya endemic for East Coast fever (ECF) where the primary wildlife reservoir of T. parva the Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is also common. To investigate for the presence of cattle-infective Theileria parasites, DNA specimens extracted from the blood samples were subjected to two diagnostic assays; a nested PCR based on the p104 gene that is specific for T. parva, and a reverse line blot (RLB) incorporating 13 oligonucleotide probes including all of the Theileria spp. so far described from livestock and wildlife in Kenya. Neither assay provided evidence of T. parva or Theileria sp. (buffalo) infection in the waterbuck DNA samples. By contrast, majority of the cattle samples (67.4%) were positive for T. parva using a nested PCR assay. The RLB assay, including a generic probe for the genus Theileria, indicated that 25/26 (96%) of the waterbuck samples were positive for Theileria, while none of the 11 Theileria species-specific probes hybridized with the waterbuck-derived PCR products. Phylogenetic analysis of 18S ribosomal RNA (18S rRNA) and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences within the RLB-positive waterbuck samples revealed the occurrence of three Theileria genotypes of unknown identity designated A, B and C. Group A clustered with Theileria equi, a pathogenic Theileria species and a causative agent of equine piroplasmosis in domestic equids. However, DNA from this group failed to hybridize with the T. equi oligonucleotide present on the RLB filter probe, suggesting the occurrence of novel taxa in these animals. This was confirmed by DNA sequencing that revealed heterogeneity between the waterbuck isolates and previously reported T. equi genotypes. Group B parasites clustered closely with Theileria luwenshuni, a highly pathogenic parasite of sheep and goats reported from China. Group C was closely related to Theileria ovis, an apparently benign parasite of sheep. Together, these findings provided no evidence that waterbuck plays a role in the transmission of T. parva. However, novel Theileria genotypes detected in this bovid species may be of veterinary importance.

Functional analysis and transcriptional output of the Göttingen minipig genome

BACKGROUND

In the past decade the Göttingen minipig has gained increasing recognition as animal model in pharmaceutical and safety research because it recapitulates many aspects of human physiology and metabolism. Genome-based comparison of drug targets together with quantitative tissue expression analysis allows rational prediction of pharmacology and cross-reactivity of human drugs in animal models thereby improving drug attrition which is an important challenge in the process of drug development.

RESULTS

Here we present a new chromosome level based version of the Göttingen minipig genome together with a comparative transcriptional analysis of tissues with pharmaceutical relevance as basis for translational research. We relied on mapping and assembly of WGS (whole-genome-shotgun sequencing) derived reads to the reference genome of the Duroc pig and predict 19,228 human orthologous protein-coding genes. Genome-based prediction of the sequence of human drug targets enables the prediction of drug cross-reactivity based on conservation of binding sites. We further support the finding that the genome of Sus scrofa contains about ten-times less pseudogenized genes compared to other vertebrates. Among the functional human orthologs of these minipig pseudogenes we found HEPN1, a putative tumor suppressor gene. The genomes of Sus scrofa, the Tibetan boar, the African Bushpig, and the Warthog show sequence conservation of all inactivating HEPN1 mutations suggesting disruption before the evolutionary split of these pig species. We identify 133 Sus scrofa specific, conserved long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in the minipig genome and show that these transcripts are highly conserved in the African pigs and the Tibetan boar suggesting functional significance. Using a new minipig specific microarray we show high conservation of gene expression signatures in 13 tissues with biomedical relevance between humans and adult minipigs. We underline this relationship for minipig and human liver where we could demonstrate similar expression levels for most phase I drug-metabolizing enzymes. Higher expression levels and metabolic activities were found for FMO1, AKR/CRs and for phase II drug metabolizing enzymes in minipig as compared to human. The variability of gene expression in equivalent human and minipig tissues is considerably higher in minipig organs, which is important for study design in case a human target belongs to this variable category in the minipig. The first analysis of gene expression in multiple tissues during development from young to adult shows that the majority of transcriptional programs are concluded four weeks after birth. This finding is in line with the advanced state of human postnatal organ development at comparative age categories and further supports the minipig as model for pediatric drug safety studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Genome based assessment of sequence conservation combined with gene expression data in several tissues improves the translational value of the minipig for human drug development. The genome and gene expression data presented here are important resources for researchers using the minipig as model for biomedical research or commercial breeding. Potential impact of our data for comparative genomics, translational research, and experimental medicine are discussed.

Putative filariosis outbreak in white and black rhinoceros at Meru National Park in Kenya

BACKGROUND

Habitat and food supply loss and disruption, together with man's pursuit of the animal's unique horn pose significant threats to the charismatic rhinoceros. Filarial worms have been thought to cause cutaneous lesions in black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) in Kenya and South Africa, but never in white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) in the wild, despite the fact that the two species live often in close proximity. Stephanofilaria dinniki has been implicated in the past as the causal agents for such lesions.

FINDINGS

In this paper we report a putative filariosis outbreak in both black and white rhinos at Meru National Park in Kenya. Four black and five white rhinos were affected by various degrees of filarioid-like lesions, while apparently all sympatric wild and domestic animals were filarial worm-free. Affected rhinos were captured and successfully treated. Comparison between the epidemiological aspects of white and black rhinoceros filariosis, and the possible relations between this outbreak and annual seasons, the presence of oxpeckers and other host species are discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study highlights (i) that filarial infection is not restricted to black rhinos, but it affects both rhinoceros species, and (ii) the importance of the earlier detection and immediate treatment (capture-treat and release) of filarioid infections, which is of pivotal interest for wildlife conservation, and especially the endangered and isolated white and black rhinoceros populations.

African Suid Genomes Provide Insights into the Local Adaptation to Diverse African Environments

African wild suids consist of several endemic species that represent ancient members of the family Suidae and have colonized diverse habitats on the African continent. However, limited genomic resources for African wild suids hinder our understanding of their evolution and genetic diversity. In this study, we assembled high-quality genomes of a common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), a red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus), as well as an East Asian Diannan small-ear pig (Sus scrofa). Phylogenetic analysis showed that common warthog and red river hog diverged from their common ancestor around the Miocene/Pliocene boundary, putatively predating their entry into Africa. We detected species-specific selective signals associated with sensory perception and interferon signaling pathways in common warthog and red river hog, respectively, which contributed to their local adaptation to savannah and tropical rainforest environments, respectively. The structural variation and evolving signals in genes involved in T-cell immunity, viral infection, and lymphoid development were identified in their ancestral lineage. Our results provide new insights into the evolutionary histories and divergent genetic adaptations of African suids.

High real-time reporting of domestic and wild animal diseases following rollout of mobile phone reporting system in Kenya

BACKGROUND

To improve early detection of emerging infectious diseases in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), many of them zoonotic, numerous electronic animal disease-reporting systems have been piloted but not implemented because of cost, lack of user friendliness, and data insecurity. In Kenya, we developed and rolled out an open-source mobile phone-based domestic and wild animal disease reporting system and collected data over two years to investigate its robustness and ability to track disease trends.

METHODS

The Kenya Animal Biosurveillance System (KABS) application was built on the Java® platform, freely downloadable for android compatible mobile phones, and supported by web-based account management, form editing and data monitoring. The application was integrated into the surveillance systems of Kenya's domestic and wild animal sectors by adopting their existing data collection tools, and targeting disease syndromes prioritized by national, regional and international animal and human health agencies. Smartphone-owning government and private domestic and wild animal health officers were recruited and trained on the application, and reports received and analyzed by Kenya Directorate of Veterinary Services. The KABS application performed automatic basic analyses (frequencies, spatial distribution), which were immediately relayed to reporting officers as feedback.

RESULTS

Of 697 trained domestic animal officers, 662 (95%) downloaded the application, and >72% of them started reporting using the application within three months. Introduction of the application resulted in 2- to 14-fold increase in number of disease reports when compared to the previous year (relative risk = 14, CI 13.8-14.2, p<0.001), and reports were more widely distributed. Among domestic animals, food animals (cattle, sheep, goats, camels, and chicken) accounted for >90% of the reports, with respiratory, gastrointestinal and skin diseases constituting >85% of the reports. Herbivore wildlife (zebra, buffalo, elephant, giraffe, antelopes) accounted for >60% of the wildlife disease reports, followed by carnivores (lions, cheetah, hyenas, jackals, and wild dogs). Deaths, traumatic injuries, and skin diseases were most reported in wildlife.

CONCLUSIONS

This open-source system was user friendly and secure, ideal for rolling out in other countries in SSA to improve disease reporting and enhance preparedness for epidemics of zoonotic diseases.

Broad diversity of simian immunodeficiency virus infecting Chlorocebus species (African green monkey) and evidence of cross-species infection in Papio anubis (olive baboon) in Kenya

BACKGROUND

Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) naturally infects African non-human primates (NHPs) and poses a threat of transmission to humans through hunting and consumption of monkeys as bushmeat. This study investigated the as of yet unknown molecular diversity of SIV in free-ranging Chlorocebus species (African green monkeys-AGMs) and Papio anubis (olive baboons) within Mombasa, Kisumu and Naivasha urban centres in Kenya.

METHODS

We collected blood samples from 124 AGMs and 65 olive baboons in situ, and detected SIV by high-resolution melting analysis and sequencing of PCR products.

RESULTS

Simian immunodeficiency virus prevalence was 32% in AGMs and 3% in baboons. High-resolution melting (HRM) analysis demonstrated distinct melt profiles illustrating virus diversity confirmed by phylogenetic analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

There is persistent evolutionary diversification of SIVagm strains in its natural host, AGMs and cross-species infection to olive baboons is occurring. Further study is required to establish pathogenesis of the diverse SIVagm variants and baboon immunological responses.

Comparative Analysis of SLA-1, SLA-2, and DQB1 Genetic Diversity in Locally-Adapted Kenyan Pigs and Their Wild Relatives, Warthogs

Swine leukocyte antigen (SLA) plays a central role in controlling the immune response by discriminating self and foreign antigens and initiating an immune response. Studies on SLA polymorphism have demonstrated associations between SLA allelic variants, immune response, and disease resistance. The SLA polymorphism is due to host-pathogen co-evolution resulting in improved adaptation to diverse environments making SLA a crucial genomic region for comparative diversity studies. Although locally-adapted African pigs have small body sizes, they possess increased resilience under harsh environmental conditions and robust immune systems with reported tolerance to some diseases, including African swine fever. However, data on the SLA diversity in these pigs are not available. We characterized the SLA of unrelated locally-adapted domestic pigs from Homa Bay, Kenya, alongside exotic pigs and warthogs. We undertook SLA comparative diversity of the functionally expressed SLA class I (SLA-1, SLA-2) and II (DQB1) repertoires in these three suids using the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) sequence-based typing (SBT) method. Our data revealed higher genetic diversity in the locally-adapted pigs and warthogs compared to the exotic pigs. The nucleotide substitution rates were higher in the peptide-binding regions of the SLA-1, SLA-2, and DQB1 loci, indicative of adaptive evolution. We obtained high allele frequencies in the three SLA loci, including some breed-specific private alleles, which could guide breeders to increase their frequency through selection if confirmed to be associated with enhanced resilience. Our study contributes to the growing body of knowledge on genetic diversity in free-ranging animal populations in their natural environment, availing the first DQB1 gene data from locally-adapted Kenyan pigs.

Potentially zoonotic gastrointestinal nematodes co-infecting free ranging non-human primates in Kenyan urban centres

BACKGROUND

Natural infections with soil-transmitted nematodes occur in non-human primates (NHPs) and have the potential to cross primate-species boundaries and cause diseases of significant public health concern. Despite the presence of NHPs in most urban centres in Kenya, comprehensive studies on their gastrointestinal parasites are scant.

OBJECTIVE

Conduct a cross-sectional survey to identify zoonotic nematodes in free-ranging NHPs found within four selected urban and peri-urban centres in Kenya.

METHODS

A total of 86 NHPs: 41 African green monkeys [AGMs] (Chlorocebus aethiops), 30 olive baboons (Papio anubis), 5 blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis stuhlmanni) and 10 red-tailed monkeys (Cercopithecus ascanius) were sampled once in situ and released back to their habitat. Microscopy was used to identify nematodes egg and larvae stages in the samples. Subsequently, PCR coupled with high-resolution melting (PCR-HRM) analysis and sequencing were used to identify nodule worms.

RESULTS

NHPs inhabiting densely populated urban environs in Kenya were found infected with a rich diversity of nematodes including three potentially zoonotic nematodes including Oesophagostomum stephanostomum, Oesophagostomum bifurcum and Trichostrongylus colubriformis and co-infections were common.

CONCLUSION

Phylogenetic analysis showed that O. stephanostomum from red-tailed and blue monkeys have a close evolutionary relatedness to human isolates suggesting the zoonotic potential of this parasite. Moreover, we also report the first natural co-infection of O. bifurcum and O. stephanostomum in free-ranging AGMs.

In vitro fertilization program in white rhinoceros

In brief

To save endangered rhinoceros species, assisted reproductive technologies are warranted. We here report in vitro blastocyst generation of the Near-Threatened Southern white rhinoceros and, for the first time, also of the technically Extinct Northern white rhinoceros.

Abstract

The Anthropocene is marked by a dramatic biodiversity decline, particularly affecting the family Rhinocerotidae. Three of five extant species are listed as Critically Endangered (Sumatran, Javan, black rhinoceros), one as Vulnerable (Indian rhinoceros), and only one white rhino (WR) subspecies, the Southern white rhinoceros (SWR), after more than a century of successful protection is currently classified as Near Threatened by the IUCN, while numbers again are declining. Conversely, in 2008, the SWR's northern counterpart and second WR subspecies, the Northern white rhinoceros (NWR), was declared extinct in the wild. Safeguarding these vanishing keystone species urgently requires new reproductive strategies. We here assess one such strategy, the novel in vitro fertilization program in SWR and - for the first-time NWR - regarding health effects, donor-related, and procedural factors. Over the past 8 years, we performed 65 procedures in 22 white rhinoceros females (20 SWR and 2 NWR) comprising hormonal ovarian stimulation, ovum pick-up (OPU), in vitro oocyte maturation, fertilization, embryo culture, and blastocyst cryopreservation, at an efficiency of 1.0 ± 1.3 blastocysts per OPU, generating 22 NWR, 19 SWR and 10 SWR/NWR hybrid blastocysts for the future generation of live offspring.

A framework for ecologically and socially informed risk reduction before and after outbreaks of wildlife-borne zoonoses

Despite increasing emphasis being placed on the inclusion of upstream ecological and social perspectives for zoonotic disease control, few guidelines exist for practitioners and decision makers to work with communities in identifying suitable, locally relevant interventions and integrating these into public health action plans. With an interdisciplinary group of Kenyan stakeholders, we designed and tested a comprehensive framework for the co-design, evaluation, and prioritisation of beneficiary-oriented, ecologically and socially informed interventions for preventing and controlling outbreaks of wildlife-borne zoonoses. Our approach used four globally important wildlife-borne pathogens-Rift Valley fever virus, Congo-Crimean haemorrhagic fever virus, and the causative agents of anthrax and rabies-enabling stakeholders to develop a shared understanding of complex transmission pathways, identify a broad array of measures targeting ecological, biological, and social processes governing outbreaks of these pathogens, and explore trade-offs for specific interventions. The framework can be applied early in the decision-making process to encourage broader, cross-sectoral co-production of knowledge, ideas, and consensus on the control of complex zoonotic diseases.

Drivers and potential distribution of anthrax occurrence and incidence at national and sub-county levels across Kenya from 2006 to 2020 using INLA

Anthrax is caused by, Bacillus anthracis, a soil-borne bacterium that infects grazing animals. Kenya reported a sharp increase in livestock anthrax cases from 2005, with only 12% of the sub-counties (decentralised administrative units used by Kenyan county governments to facilitate service provision) accounting for almost a third of the livestock cases. Recent studies of the spatial extent of B. anthracis suitability across Kenya have used approaches that cannot capture the underlying spatial and temporal dependencies in the surveillance data. To address these limitations, we apply the first Bayesian approach using R-INLA to analyse a long-term dataset of livestock anthrax case data, collected from 2006 to 2020 in Kenya. We develop a spatial and a spatiotemporal model to investigate the distribution and socio-economic drivers of anthrax occurrence and incidence at the national and sub-county level. The spatial model was robust to geographically based cross validation and had a sensitivity of 75% (95% CI 65-75) against withheld data. Alarmingly, the spatial model predicted high intensity of anthrax across the Northern counties (Turkana, Samburu, and Marsabit) comprising pastoralists who are often economically and politically marginalized, and highly predisposed to a greater risk of anthrax. The spatiotemporal model showed a positive link between livestock anthrax risk and the total human population and the number of exotic dairy cattle, and a negative association with the human population density, livestock producing households, and agricultural land area. Public health programs aimed at reducing human-animal contact, improving access to healthcare, and increasing anthrax awareness, should prioritize these endemic regions.

Molecular Detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Small Mammals and Infesting Ticks in Laikipia County, Kenya

Anaplasmosis is a set of disease conditions of various mammals caused by bacteria species of the genus Anaplasma. These are sub-microscopic, Gram-negative, obligate intracellular pathogens that infect both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. Significant species that infect domestic and wildlife animals include Anaplasma marginale, Anaplasma ovis, Anaplasma mesaeterum, Anaplasma platys, and Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Although A. phagocytophilum has a widespread distribution, there are only a few epidemiological reports from sub-Saharan Africa. This study focused on molecular detection and characterization of A. phagocytophilum in small mammals and their infesting ticks in Laikipia County, Kenya. A total of 385 blood and 84 tick archival samples from small mammals (155 females and 230 males) were analyzed. The blood samples were subjected to a nested PCR-HRM melt analysis using species-specific primers to amplify the 16S ribosomal RNA genes. The ticks were also subjected to nested PCR-HRM involving 16S rRNA gene primers. Anaplasma phagocytophilum DNA was detected in 19 out of 385 samples using species-specific 16S rRNA gene primers giving a prevalence of 4.9% for A. phagocytophilum. Analysis of the tick's samples using 16S rRNA gene species-specific primers also detected A. phagocytophilum in 3 samples from Haemaphysalis leachi ticks (3/84) equivalent to prevalence of 3.6%. Sequencing of 16S rRNA PCR products confirmed A. phagocytophilum in small mammals and ticks' samples. Phylogenetic analysis of the haplotype from this study demonstrated a close ancestral link with strains from Canis lupus familiaris, Alces alces, Apodemus agrarius, and ticks (Haemaphysalis longicornis) reported in Europe, China, and Africa. Comparison was also made with a known pathogenic A. phagocytophilum variant HA and a nonpathogenic variant 1 that were clustered into a distinctive clade different form haplotypes detected in this study. All the haplotype sequences for A. phagocytophilum from this study were submitted and registered in GenBank under the accession numbers OQ308965-OQ308976. Our study shows that small mammals and their associated ticks harbor A. phagocytophilum. The vector competence for H. leachi in A. phagocytophilum transmission should further be investigated.

Trypanosomiasis in Introduced Southern White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) Gifts to Ex Situ Habitat in Aitong, Kenya

During the opening of diplomatic relations in the 1990s, South Africa gifted 20 southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) to Kenya. The species is not indigenous to Kenya, and management of the introduction was not clearly addressed in the legislation. Responsibility was left to the private sector and local authorities. Ten of the animals were introduced to land contiguous with the Maasai Mara National Reserve, an area with tsetse-trypanosomiasis challenges, and with rare cases of human sleeping sickness. Mortalities had been previously documented when indigenous naïve black rhinoceros were introduced to areas with tsetse; hence there was no consensus on the management of this introduction. Feasibility was only explored once before with the introduction of two animals in a monitored and managed translocation from Lewa Downs, Laikipia in 1992-1994. Ultimately, Kenyan experts were co-opted to address risk after trypanosomiasis occurred in many animals. Unfortunately, this finding was followed by gradual mortalities of most rhinoceros with only a few being saved by removal to highland private sanctuaries. This event was complicated by many factors. Samples were only sporadically collected, and mainly from sick animals. With no clear responsibility by government agencies, a collaboration between veterinarians and researchers resulted in characterization of the disease challenge, and when invited, assessment of health status. Laboratory diagnostics revealed common and sometimes severe infections with Trypanosoma brucei, a normally infrequent trypanosome. Infection was associated with disturbances in erythropoiesis, especially anemia. Symptoms varied from sudden death associated with intestinal atony, to a semiparalyzed animal that was partially responsive to treatment for trypanosomes. This event should be used as a caution to future movements of this species that are planned or ongoing in Africa, for conservation or other purposes.

The Bacterial and pathogenic landscape of African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) whole blood and serum from Kenya

BACKGROUND

African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is a significant reservoir host for many zoonotic and parasitic infections in Africa. These include a range of viruses and pathogenic bacteria, such as tick-borne rickettsial organisms. Despite the considerations of mammalian blood as a sterile environment, blood microbiome sequencing could become crucial for agnostic biosurveillance. This study investigated the blood microbiome of clinically healthy wild buffaloes in Kenya to determine its applicability in agnostic testing for bacteria in apparently healthy wild animals.

METHODS

Whole blood and serum samples were collected from 46 wild African buffalos from Meru National Park (30), Buffalo Springs (6) and Shaba (10) National Reserves in upper eastern Kenya. Total deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was extracted from these samples and subjected to amplicon-based sequencing targeting the 16 S rRNA gene. The bacteria operational taxonomic units (OTU) were identified to species levels by mapping the generated V12 and V45 regions of 16 S rRNA gene to the SILVA database. These OTU tables were used to infer the microbial abundance in each sample type and at the individual animal level. The sequences for the corresponding OTUs were also used to generate phylogenetic trees and thus infer evolution for the OTUs of interest.

RESULTS

Here, we demonstrate that buffaloes harbor many bacteria in their blood. We also report a diversity of 16 S rRNA gene sequences for Anaplasma and Mycoplasma from individual animals. By sequencing both whole blood and serum in triplicate for each animal, we provide evidence of the differences in detecting bacteria in both sample types.

CONCLUSIONS

Diverse bacteria, including some potential pathogens, can be found in the blood of clinically healthy wild African buffalo. Agnostic surveillance for such pathogens can be achieved through blood microbiome sequencing. However, considerations for the question being asked for the blood microbiome in wildlife will impact the choice for using whole blood or serum for sequencing.

Congenital and Neoplastic Cranial Deformities in Wild Giraffe (Giraffa spp.)

Congenital deformities and neoplasia are poorly documented in wildlife, owing to the difficulty of detection in wild populations. Congenital deformities may lead to premature mortality, thus reducing the chances of thorough documentation. Importantly, neoplasia diagnoses depend on either sampling suspicious lesions from living individuals or access to fresh, undisturbed carcasses, which can prove challenging. We describe five cases of suspected congenital cranial deformities (midfacial cleft, wry nose, and brachygnathia inferior) and two possible cases of cranial neoplasia (orbital bone mass and a soft tissue mass) opportunistically observed in wild giraffe (Giraffa spp.) across their range in Africa. Although cases are largely limited to subjective description because physical examination is often not possible, it is critical to document such observations to help identify and track potential health concerns in wild giraffe populations.

Application of decision tools to ethical analysis in biodiversity conservation

Achieving ethically responsible decisions is crucial for the success of biodiversity conservation projects. We adapted the ethical matrix, decision tree, and Bateson's cube to assist in the ethical analysis of complex conservation scenarios by structuring these tools so that they can implement the different value dimensions (environmental, social, and animal welfare) involved in conservation ethics. We then applied them to a case study relative to the decision-making process regarding whether or not to continue collecting biomaterial on the oldest of the two remaining northern white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum cottoni), a functionally extinct subspecies of the white rhinoceros. We used the ethical matrix to gather ethical pros and cons and as a starting point for a participatory approach to ethical decision-making. We used decision trees to compare the different options at stake on the basis of a set of ethical desiderata. We used Bateson's cube to establish a threshold of ethical acceptability and model the results of a simple survey. The application of these tools proved to be pivotal in structuring the decision-making process and in helping reach a shared, reasoned, and transparent decision on the best option from an ethical point of view among those available.