The Factor Structure of the Forms of Self-Criticising/Attacking & Self-Reassuring Scale in Thirteen Distinct Populations

There is considerable evidence that self-criticism plays a major role in the vulnerability to and recovery from psychopathology. Methods to measure this process, and its change over time, are therefore important for research in psychopathology and well-being. This study examined the factor structure of a widely used measure, the Forms of Self-Criticising/Attacking & Self-Reassuring Scale in thirteen nonclinical samples (N = 7510) from twelve different countries: Australia (N = 319), Canada (N = 383), Switzerland (N = 230), Israel (N = 476), Italy (N = 389), Japan (N = 264), the Netherlands (N = 360), Portugal (N = 764), Slovakia (N = 1326), Taiwan (N = 417), the United Kingdom 1 (N = 1570), the United Kingdom 2 (N = 883), and USA (N = 331). This study used more advanced analyses than prior reports: a bifactor item-response theory model, a two-tier item-response theory model, and a non-parametric item-response theory (Mokken) scale analysis. Although the original three-factor solution for the FSCRS (distinguishing between Inadequate-Self, Hated-Self, and Reassured-Self) had an acceptable fit, two-tier models, with two general factors (Self-criticism and Self-reassurance) demonstrated the best fit across all samples. This study provides preliminary evidence suggesting that this two-factor structure can be used in a range of nonclinical contexts across countries and cultures. Inadequate-Self and Hated-Self might not by distinct factors in nonclinical samples. Future work may benefit from distinguishing between self-correction versus shame-based self-criticism.

The role of social connection on the experience of COVID-19 related post-traumatic growth and stress

BACKGROUND

Historically social connection has been an important way through which humans have coped with large-scale threatening events. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, lockdowns have deprived people of major sources of social support and coping, with others representing threats. Hence, a major stressor during the pandemic has been a sense of social disconnection and loneliness. This study explores how people's experience of compassion and feeling socially safe and connected, in contrast to feeling socially disconnected, lonely and fearful of compassion, effects the impact of perceived threat of COVID-19 on post-traumatic growth and post-traumatic stress.

METHODS

Adult participants from the general population (N = 4057) across 21 countries worldwide, completed self-report measures of social connection (compassion for self, from others, for others; social safeness), social disconnection (fears of compassion for self, from others, for others; loneliness), perceived threat of COVID-19, post-traumatic growth and traumatic stress.

RESULTS

Perceived threat of COVID-19 predicted increased post-traumatic growth and traumatic stress. Social connection (compassion and social safeness) predicted higher post-traumatic growth and traumatic stress, whereas social disconnection (fears of compassion and loneliness) predicted increased traumatic symptoms only. Social connection heightened the impact of perceived threat of COVID-19 on post-traumatic growth, while social disconnection weakened this impact. Social disconnection magnified the impact of the perceived threat of COVID-19 on traumatic stress. These effects were consistent across all countries.

CONCLUSIONS

Social connection is key to how people adapt and cope with the worldwide COVID-19 crisis and may facilitate post-traumatic growth in the context of the threat experienced during the pandemic. In contrast, social disconnection increases vulnerability to develop post-traumatic stress in this threatening context. Public health and Government organizations could implement interventions to foster compassion and feelings of social safeness and reduce experiences of social disconnection, thus promoting growth, resilience and mental wellbeing during and following the pandemic.

Prevalence of compassion fatigue among helping professions and relationship to compassion for others, self-compassion and self-criticism

INTRODUCTION

Helping professionals are at high risk of being affected by the negative aspects of helping such as compassion fatigue. To date, no study has provided a comprehensive overview of compassion fatigue and compared the prevalence among different helping professions.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to explore the prevalence and differences in compassion fatigue among different helping professions. We also wanted to explore the relationship between compassion, self-compassion, self-criticism and compassion fatigue.

METHODS

Six hundred and seven participants working in the helping professions were recruited. The sample consisted of 102 nurses, 44 doctors, 57 paramedics, 39 home nurses, 66 teachers, 103 psychologists, 40 psychotherapists and coaches, 76 social workers, 39 priests and pastors and 41 police officers. The data were collected using an online questionnaire battery measuring levels of compassion, self-compassion, self-criticism, compassion fatigue and compassion satisfaction.

RESULTS

We found significant differences in compassion fatigue levels among various helping professions. No large differences were found in the compassion and self-compassion levels exhibited by professionals with medium versus low compassion fatigue scores. However, participants with higher levels of compassion fatigue scored higher in self-criticism. Self-criticism was found to be the best predictor of compassion fatigue. The effect of profession on compassion fatigue as mediated by self-criticism and self-compassion was significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results, we recommend designing programs to combat compassion fatigue that teach helping professionals to better manage their work time and workload (hours per week with clients/patients) and learn healthier inner talk (less self-critical and more self-compassionate).

Fears of compassion magnify the harmful effects of threat of COVID-19 on mental health and social safeness across 21 countries

Background

The COVID‐19 pandemic is a massive global health crisis with damaging consequences to mental health and social relationships. Exploring factors that may heighten or buffer the risk of mental health problems in this context is thus critical. Whilst compassion may be a protective factor, in contrast fears of compassion increase vulnerability to psychosocial distress and may amplify the impact of the pandemic on mental health. This study explores the magnifying effects of fears of compassion on the impact of perceived threat of COVID‐19 on depression, anxiety and stress, and social safeness.

Methods

Adult participants from the general population (N = 4057) were recruited across 21 countries worldwide, and completed self‐report measures of perceived threat of COVID‐19, fears of compassion (for self, from others, for others), depression, anxiety, stress and social safeness.

Results

Perceived threat of COVID‐19 predicted increased depression, anxiety and stress. The three flows of fears of compassion predicted higher levels of depression, anxiety and stress and lower social safeness. All fears of compassion moderated (heightened) the impact of perceived threat of COVID‐19 on psychological distress. Only fears of compassion from others moderated the effects of likelihood of contracting COVID‐19 on social safeness. These effects were consistent across all countries.

Conclusions

Fears of compassion have a universal magnifying effect on the damaging impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on mental health and social safeness. Compassion focused interventions and communications could be implemented to reduce resistances to compassion and promote mental wellbeing during and following the pandemic.

Randomised controlled trial of the new short-term online emotion focused training for self-compassion and self-protection in a nonclinical sample

The Emotion Focused Training for Self-Compassion and Self-Protection (EFT-SCP) is an intervention developed to increase skills of self-compassion and protective anger with the aim to decrease self-criticism. This novel intervention was developed on the basis of the latest findings on self-criticism from Emotion-focused therapy and previous programs cultivating compassion (namely Compassion Mind Training and Mindful Self-Compassion Program). According to existing research, simply cultivating self-compassion is not always sufficient in reducing self-criticism. Therefore, the EFT-SCP was designed to build self-compassion whilst developing protective anger to combat self-criticism. Our goal was to investigate the efficacy of this new, short-term, online EFT-SCP program in a non-clinical population. A randomized control trial was conducted with pre- and post-intervention measurements and two-month follow-up of self-compassion and self-criticism/reassurance. Convenience sampling was used to recruit participants through a snowballing technique on social media. A total of 123 participants were randomly allocated to the EFT-SCP intervention or to a control condition. The intervention group were instructed through emails to complete an EFT-SCP task every day for 14 consecutive days. The control group did not complete any tasks. Out of 123 participants, 31 from intervention group and 20 from control group completed all measurements. There was a significant effect of the EFT-SCP on increasing self-compassion and self-reassurance scores as reported at two-month follow-up. The EFT-SCP was also effective at reducing self-uncompassionate responding and self-criticism (specifically Hated self) with changes evident at two months post-intervention. These findings are encouraging and suggest that interventions designed to enhance self-compassion and decrease self-criticism can be delivered to broader populations without the direct contact with mental health professionals.

Perceived Threat of the Coronavirus and the Role of Trust in Safeguards: A Case Study in Slovakia

In this exploratory research study, we developed an instrument to investigate people's confidence in safeguarding measures [Confidence in Safeguards Scale (CSS)] and we adapted an instrument measuring perceived risk of coronavirus [perceived risk of coronavirus scale (PRCS)] that was originally based on a perceived risk of HIV measure. We then explored the effect of public confidence in safeguarding measures designed to halt the spread of the coronavirus on perceived risk, controlling for related covariates. The sample consisted of N = 565 respondents; 119 were males (21.1%) and 446 were females (78.9%). Mean age was 35.42 (SD = 13.11), range was 18-77 years. We used convenience sampling to gather the data at the end of March 2020 via social media in Slovakia. The CSS showed good reliability levels and a three-factor structure: Confidence in Institutions, Confidence in Personal and Family Behaviors, and Confidence in Others' Behaviors. The PRCS showed good reliability levels and a two-factor structure: Fear of Contraction and Perceived Likelihood of Contraction. Participants with higher levels of Confidence in Others' Behaviors perceived the spread of the coronavirus to be less threatening, both cognitively (less perceived likelihood of contraction) and affectively (less fear of contraction). This finding could be used when designing public health policy and emergency communication. Enhancing confidence in others' behaviors could encourage individual responsibility, social responsibility, and solidarity through social bonds extending beyond the family. In future research we plan to replicate the data collection using the same instruments in different countries so the results are comparable across cultures and can be used to improve emergency communication.

Improvements in Compassion and Fears of Compassion throughout the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Multinational Study

During large-scale disasters, social support, caring behaviours, and compassion are shown to protect against poor mental health outcomes. This multi-national study aimed to assess the fluctuations in compassion over time during the COVID-19 pandemic. Respondents (Time 1 n = 4156, Time 2 n = 980, Time 3 n = 825) from 23 countries completed online self-report questionnaires measuring the flows of compassion (i.e., Compassionate Engagement and Action Scales) and fears of compassion toward self and others and from others (i.e., Fears of Compassion Scales) and mental health at three time-points during a 10-month period. The results for the flows of compassion showed that self-compassion increased at Time 3. Compassion for others increased at Time 2 and 3 for the general population, but in contrast, it decreased in health professionals, possibly linked to burnout. Compassion from others did not change in Time 2, but it did increase significantly in Time 3. For fears of compassion, fears of self-compassion reduced over time, fears of compassion for others showed more variation, reducing for the general public but increasing for health professionals, whilst fears of compassion from others did not change over time. Health professionals, those with compassion training, older adults, and women showed greater flows of compassion and lower fears of compassion compared with the general population, those without compassion training, younger adults, and men. These findings highlight that, in a period of shared suffering, people from multiple countries and nationalities show a cumulative improvement in compassion and reduction in fears of compassion, suggesting that, when there is intense suffering, people become more compassionate to self and others and less afraid of, and resistant to, compassion.

Non-expert views of compassion: consensual qualitative research using focus groups

Although the research on compassion is growing, there is a lack of knowledge about how non-expert people perceive compassion. Therefore, the aim of the study was to explore compassion from the perspective of non-experts. Our sample consisted of 56 non-expert participants (Slovaks and Czechs) in 10 focus groups and we conducted a Consensual Qualitative Research analysis with two members of a core team and one auditor. In general, compassion was described as a mixture of non-specified positive emotions and specified negative emotions (mainly fear, remorse, and sadness). Compassion was related to empathy. In terms of behaviours, compassion was revealed to help, support, favour, mental closeness, and interest. Compassion is displayed mainly to people close to us in situations of suffering. However, people tend to evaluate beforehand whether the situation and person deserve compassion. Moreover, people are cautious about being exploited through compassion. To sum up, our findings support a multidimensional definition of compassion.

Randomised Controlled Trial of an Online Version of Compassion Mind Training in a Nonclinical Sample

Compassion Mind Training (CMT) is a therapeutic approach to guide highly self-critical individuals to generate compassion. The goal was to probe the efficacy of a short-term, online version of the CMT on self-compassion and self-criticism in a non-clinical population. We conducted a randomized controlled trial with pre-, post-measurements and two-month follow-up. Out of 144 randomly allocated participants 26 and 20 of those allocated to the intervention and control groups, respectively, completed the follow-up measures. The intervention group was instructed through email to practice a different CMT exercise every day for 13 consecutive days. There was a significant effect of the intervention on self-criticism, especially Hated-self and the Self-uncompassionate responding. The CMT group reported a reduction in negative thoughts and feelings with effects present at the two-month follow-up. There was no significant effect of the intervention on self-reassurance and self-compassion. Self-criticism is amenable to change following a short-term online intervention of CMT delivered to a non-clinical population with effects lasting at least two months. These findings are promising and suggest that interventions designed to reduce self-criticism can be provided to broader populations without direct involvement of mental health professionals.

Randomized controlled trial of emotion-focused training for helping professionals

Introduction

The aim of this study was to examine the short- and long-term effectiveness of the novel Emotion-focused Training for Helping Professions on levels of compassion fatigue (secondary traumatic stress & burnout), self-criticism, self-compassion, and compassion for others.

Methods

A randomized controlled trial study was conducted. A total of 253 participants were recruited and randomly assigned to either the experimental group or the control group. The experimental group attended a 14-day online training. The control group did not perform any tasks.

Results

Results showed that after completing the intervention the experimental group participants reported significantly lower scores for secondary traumatic stress, burnout and self-criticism, and higher scores for self-compassion and that these lasted for two months after completion. Compared to the control group, the experimental group participants had significantly lower scores of secondary traumatic stress, burnout, self-criticism, and higher scores of self-compassion after the intervention. No significant changes were found for the control group, except a significant increase in time in the reported score for one dimension of burnout - exhaustion.

Discussion

The novel EFT-HP training was shown to be effective in reducing levels of compassion fatigue (secondary traumatic stress and burnout) and self-criticism and increasing self-compassion.

Psychological and physiological effects of emotion focused training for self-compassion and self-protection

Emotion Focused Training for Self-Compassion and Self-Protection (EFT-SCP) is a novel intervention developed on the basis of the latest findings on self-criticism from Emotion-focused therapy and existing programs designed to cultivate compassion. EFTSCP is designed to encourage participants to cultivate self-compassion and protective anger as a way of reducing selfcriticism. Our goal was to investigate the effect of this group-based intervention on self-criticism, self-protection, and self-compassion. A total of 73 students were assigned to the EFT-SCP intervention (n=19), no-treatment control (n=34) or to an active control group (n=20). The intervention group met weekly for 1.5 hours and were instructed to incorporate EFT-SCP tasks into their daily life for 12 weeks. Whilst the no-treatment group did not undergo an intervention, the active control group completed an adapted expressive writing task once a week. In addition to the assessment of heart rate variability during imagery tasks, participants also completed self-reported measures of self-compassion and self-criticism before and after the intervention. Compared with both control groups, the intervention group showed a significant increase in heart rate variability following EFT-SCP (during self-critical imagery, P=.049; probability of superiority was .63, and during self-compassionate imagery P=.007; probability of superiority was .62, both effect sizes were medium) and significant decreases in selfcriticism (Hated Self P=.017; .34 and Inadequate Self P<.001; .33) and self-uncompassionate responding (P<.001; .39). All three effect sizes were small. Participating in EFT-SCP had a positive effect on psychological and physiological outcomes.

Analysis of Facial Expressions Made While Watching a Video Eliciting Compassion

The aim of the study was to describe the spontaneous facial expressions elicited by viewers of a compassionate video in terms of the respondents’ muscular activity of single facial action units (AUs). We recruited a convenience sample of 111 undergraduate psychology students, aged 18-25 years ( M = 20.53; SD = 1.62) to watch (at home alone) a short video stimulus eliciting compassion, and we recorded the respondents’ faces using webcams. We used both a manual analysis, based on the Facial Action Coding System, and an automatic analysis of the holistic recognition of facial expressions as obtained through EmotionID software. Manual facial analysis revealed that, during the compassionate moment of the video stimulus, AUs 1 =  inner-brow raiser, 4 =  brow lowerer, 7 =  lids tight, 17 =  chin raiser, 24 =  lip presser, and 55 =  head tilt left occurred more often than other AUs. These same AUs also occurred more often during the compassionate moment than during the baseline recording. Consistent with these findings, automatic facial analysis during the compassionate moment showed that anger occurred more often than other emotions; during the baseline moment, contempt occurred less often than other emotions. Further research is necessary to fully describe the facial expression of compassion.

The Factor Structure and External Validity of the COPE 60 Inventory in Slovak Translation

The COPE Inventory (Carver et al., 1989) is the most frequently used measure of coping; yet previous studies examining its factor structure yielded mixed results. The purpose of the current study, therefore, was to validate the factor structure of the COPE Inventory in a representative sample of over 2,000 adults in Slovakia. Our second goal was to evaluate the external validity of the COPE inventory, which has not been done before. Firstly, we performed the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with half of the sample. Subsequently, we performed the confirmatory factor analysis with the second half of the sample. Both factor analyses with 15 factor solutions showed excellent fit with the data. Additionally, we performed a hierarchical factor analysis with fifteen first-order factors (acceptance, active coping, behavioral disengagement, denial, seeking emotional support, humor, seeking instrumental support, mental disengagement, planning, positive reinterpretation, religion, restraint, substance use, suppression of competing activities, and venting) and three second-order factors (active coping, social emotional coping, and avoidance coping) which showed good fit with the data. Moreover, the COPE Inventory’s external validity was evaluated using consensual qualitative research (CQR) analysis on data collected by in-depth interviews. Categories of coping created using CQR corresponded with all COPE first-order factors. Moreover, we identified two additional first-order factors that were not present in the COPE Inventory: self-care and care for others. Our study shows that the Slovak translation of the COPE Inventory is a reliable, externally valid, and well-structured instrument for measuring coping in the Slovak population.

There must be a way out: The consensual qualitative analysis of best coping practices during the COVID-19 pandemic

Despite the continuous efforts to understand coping processes, very little is known about the utilization of best coping strategies during the COVID-19 pandemic. In this study, we aimed to analyze the coping strategies of individuals who scored high on an adaptive coping questionnaire in order to understand the most adaptive coping strategies during the COVID-19 pandemic. We used consensual qualitative analysis in a team of four researchers and one auditor. The convenience sample from which we identified the high scorers comprised 1,683 participants (67% women, 32.35% men, and 0.65% did not report their gender) with a mean age of 31.02 years (SD = 11.99) ranging between 18 and 77 years old. Based on their scoring in the COPE Inventory, nine participants were selected from the sample with the highest scores in coping skills in at least two out of its 15 subscales. In-depth repeated interviews with six participants for the main analysis were conducted, and three were added to check the data saturation. The results showed that the most adaptive coping strategies used during the COVID-19 pandemic could be categorized into four main domains: self-compassion, compassion to others, compassion from others, and mutual compassion. The most frequently mentioned and the most elaborated upon by our respondents was the domain of self-compassion. The most interesting finding was the emergence of the fourth type of compassion, labeled mutual compassion, which referred to deliberate attempts to take care of oneself and others while suffering together in order to elevate the suffering for both. This kind of compassion might arise in the situations of collective suffering, such as a catastrophe or a pandemic and might have the additional benefit of bringing people closer to each other in difficult times.

Emotion-Focused Mobile App for Promoting Self-Compassion, Self-Protection, and Self-Criticism

The COVID-19 pandemic has changed our daily lives and restricted access to traditional psychological interventions. Hence there is an immediate and growing demand for accessible and scalable mental health solutions. Emotion-focused training for self-compassion and self-protection was developed and distributed using mobile phone technologies, and its effectiveness was tested. The available research sample consisted of 97 participants with a mean age of 26.06 years and a standard deviation of 10.53. Participants using the mobile app underwent a 14-day program aimed at reducing self-criticism while increasing self-compassion and self-protection. Pre- and post-measurements were collected. The results showed a statistically significant medium effect on self-compassion, self-criticism, and self-protection performance and a significant small effect on self-protection distress. The finding that a 14-day mobile app was able to foster well-being in the form of self-compassion, self-protection, and self-criticism is promising. It indicates the potential for individuals to obtain help through the use of remote tools such as MHapps for a fraction of the usual cost, at their own pace, and without other restrictions.

A Multilevel Multidimensional Finite Mixture Item Response Model to Cluster Respondents and Countries

Abstract. The aim of this study was to test the multilevel multidimensional finite mixture item response model of the Forms of Self-Criticising/Attacking and Self-Reassuring Scale (FSCRS) to cluster respondents and countries from 13 samples ( N = 7,714) and from 12 countries. The practical goal was to learn how many discrete classes there are on the level of individuals (i.e., how many cut-offs are to be used) and countries (i.e., the magnitude of similarities and dissimilarities among them). We employed the multilevel multidimensional finite mixture approach which is based on an extended class of multidimensional latent class Item Response Theory (IRT) models. Individuals and countries are partitioned into discrete latent classes with different levels of self-criticism and self-reassurance, taking into account at the same time the multidimensional structure of the construct. This approach was applied to the analysis of the relationships between observed characteristics and latent trait at different levels (individuals and countries), and across different dimensions using the three-dimensional measure of the FSCRS. Results showed that respondents’ scores were dependent on unobserved (latent class) individual and country membership, the multidimensional structure of the instrument, and justified the use of a multilevel multidimensional finite mixture item response model in the comparative psychological assessment of individuals and countries. Latent class analysis of the FSCRS showed that individual participants and countries could be divided into discrete classes. Along with the previous findings that the FSCRS is psychometrically robust we can recommend using the FSCRS for measuring self-criticism.

Short version of the Scale for Interpersonal Behavior: Slovak translation and psychometric analysis

Assertiveness is a social communication skill and is related to the effectiveness of expressing oneself while respecting others. A lack of assertiveness is associated with various mental illnesses; hence the importance of being able to measure it reliably. The aim of the study was to translate the short version of the Scale for Interpersonal Behavior (s-SIB) into Slovak and subsequently test its factor structure and other psychometric properties. Our convenience sample consisted of 590 respondents from Slovakia, 22.71% of whom were men and 77.29% women. The data analysis consisted of a descriptive analysis, reliability analysis, factor structure analysis, Mokken analysis, and percentile norms. The scale showed good psychometric properties. Unlike the 4-factor solution for distress and performance in the original work, our findings showed that the general factor loadings were very good and that the bifactor model had the best fit in both cases (distress and performance). Mokken analysis indicated that the total scores for distress and perfromance and their constituent subscales can be used as proposed. In conclusion, the Slovak version of the s-SIB can be used as to measure the total score for assertiveness as well as the separate factors - Positive Assertion, Negative Assertion, Expression of and Dealing with Personal Limitations, and Initiating Assertiveness.

The impact of Emotion-focused training for emotion couching delivered as mobile app on self-compassion and self-criticism

Introduction

Being self-compassionate is considered a beneficial emotion regulation strategy. Therefore, the acquisition of emotional skills can raise self-compassion levels and consequently reduce self-criticism.

Methods

Hence, the goal of the current study was to develop a mobile app based on the empirically proven group version of Emotion-Focused Training for Emotional Coaching (EFT-EC) and test its effectiveness in reducing self-criticism and raising self-compassion and self-protection. The sample consisted of 85 participants, of whom 22.4% were men and 77.6% were women. The mean age was 32.53 (SD = 14.51), ranging from 18 to 74 years. The participants filled out the following scales immediately before and after using the fourteen-day mobile app: The Forms of Self-Criticizing/Attacking & Self-Reassuring Scale (FSCRS), The Sussex-Oxford Compassion for the Self Scale (SOCS-S), and The Short-form Version of The Scale for interpersonal behaviour (s-SIB).

Results

Use of the 14-day EFT-EC mobile app significantly improved self-compassion and self-reassurance and significantly reduced self-criticism compared to pre- and post-measurements.

Discussion

The results are promising as self-criticism is a transdiagnostic phenomenon observed in various kinds of psychopathology and reducing it may prevent the emergence of psychopathologies. Moreover, the mobile app intervention can easily be accessed by a wide range of users, without requiring the services of a mental health professional, and thereby reduces the potential risk of shame or stigmatization.

Automated facial expression analysis of participants self-criticising via the two-chair technique: exploring facial behavioral markers of self-criticism

Introduction

As self-rating scales are prone to many measurement distortions, there is a growing call for more objective measures based on physiological or behavioural indicators. Self-criticism is one of the major transdiagnostic factor of all mental disorders therefore it is important to be able to distinguish what are the characteristic facial features of self-criticizing. To the best of our knowledge, there has been no automated facial emotion expression analysis of participants self-criticising via the two-chair technique. The aim of this study was to detect which action units of facial expressions were significantly more often present in participants performing self-criticism using the two-chair technique. The broader goal was to contribute to the scientific knowledge on objective behavioural descriptions of self-criticism and to provide an additional diagnostic means to the existing self-rating scales by exploring facial behavioral markers of self-criticism.

Methods

The non-clinical sample consisted of 80 participants (20 men and 60 women) aged 19 years to 57 years (M = 23.86; SD = 5.98). In the analysis we used iMotions's Affectiva AFFDEX module (Version 8.1) to classify the participants' actions units from the self-criticising videos. For the statistical analysis we used a multilevel model to account for the repeated-measures design.

Results

Based on the significant results the self-critical facial expression may therefore comprise the following action units: Dimpler, Lip Press, Eye Closure, Jaw Drop, and Outer Brow Raise, which are related to contempt, fear, and embarrassment or shame; and Eye Closure and Eye Widen (in rapid sequence Blink), which are a sign that highly negative stimuli are being emotionally processed.

Discussion

The research study need to be further analysed using clinical samples to compare the results.

Dimensions of wisdom perception across twelve countries on five continents

Wisdom is the hallmark of social judgment, but how people across cultures recognize wisdom remains unclear-distinct philosophical traditions suggest different views of wisdom's cardinal features. We explore perception of wise minds across 16 socio-economically and culturally diverse convenience samples from 12 countries. Participants assessed wisdom exemplars, non-exemplars, and themselves on 19 socio-cognitive characteristics, subsequently rating targets' wisdom, knowledge, and understanding. Analyses reveal two positively related dimensions-Reflective Orientation and Socio-Emotional Awareness. These dimensions are consistent across the studied cultural regions and interact when informing wisdom ratings: wisest targets-as perceived by participants-score high on both dimensions, whereas the least wise are not reflective but moderately socio-emotional. Additionally, individuals view themselves as less reflective but more socio-emotionally aware than most wisdom exemplars. Our findings expand folk psychology and social judgment research beyond the Global North, showing how individuals perceive desirable cognitive and socio-emotional qualities, and contribute to an understanding of mind perception.

Breaking the vicious cycles of self-criticism: a qualitative study on the best practices of overcoming one's inner critic

Despite continuous efforts to understand self-critical inner dialogues, little is known about the best practices people use to overcome their self-critics. In this study, we aimed to analyse the self-critical cycles of participants who scored high on coping to understand the most adaptive strategies and responses to the self-critic. The consensual qualitative analysis was performed by a team of three researchers and one auditor. The high scorers were identified from a convenience sample of 1,683 participants. Twenty participants, 14 women and 6 men, were randomly chosen from the sample of individuals who scored high in self-reporting inventory of coping. In-depth repeat interviews were conducted with 15 participants for the main analysis, and 5 were added to check the data saturation. The results revealed three core themes - I am okay but I need improving; I am okay but improving would help; and I am not okay and it is hard to be different. Furthermore, six main types of self-critic emerged from the data: Teamster, Non-feeler, Worrier, Not good enough for self, Not good enough for others, and Hated self. Self-critic sequences included the trigger or specific situation evoking that self-critic; accompanying emotions and/ or self-awareness; a particular kind of self-criticism and self-compassionate and/or self-protective responses to the self-critic that form part of coping. The results supported the Emotion Focused Theory of change, with self-compassionate and self-protective responses being aimed at various types of self-critic. Self-critic specific nuances were also identified. The study provided the possibilities of working with different types of inner critics and could alleviate the suffering caused by them.