Simultaneous quantification of differently glycosylated, acetylated, and 2,3-dihydro-2,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one-conjugated soyasaponins using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with evaporative light scattering detection

A novel method utilizing high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with evaporative light scattering detection (ELSD) and electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) was developed for the analysis of soyasaponins, a divers group of triterpenic compounds with one or two sugar side chains, occurring in soy. Group A soyasaponins in different degrees of acetylation, as well as group B soyasaponins in both their 2,3-dihydro-2,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one (DDMP)-conjugated and non-conjugated forms could be separated and quantified using authentic soyasaponin standards, in one single run. The method was tested by the determination of the soyasaponin content and composition of eight soygerm samples of different origin. Differences in the composition and the degree of acetylation of the group A soyasaponins were observed among these samples. The group B soyasaponins showed much less variability and they were mainly present in their DDMP-conjugated form.

A new family of rhamnogalacturonan lyases contains an enzyme that binds to cellulose

Pseudomonas cellulosa is an aerobic bacterium that synthesizes an extensive array of modular cellulases and hemicellulases, which have a modular architecture consisting of catalytic domains and distinct non-catalytic carbohydrate-binding modules (CBMs). To investigate whether the main-chain-cleaving pectinases from this bacterium also have a modular structure, a library of P. cellulosa genomic DNA, constructed in lambdaZAPII, was screened for pectinase-encoding sequences. A recombinant phage that attacked arabinan, galactan and rhamnogalacturonan was isolated. The encoded enzyme, designated Rgl11A, had a modular structure comprising an N-terminal domain that exhibited homology to Bacillus and Streptomyces proteins of unknown function, a middle domain that exhibited sequence identity to fibronectin-3 domains, and a C-terminal domain that was homologous to family 2a CBMs. Expression of the three modules of the Pseudomonas protein in Escherichia coli showed that its C-terminal module was a functional cellulose-binding domain, and the N-terminal module consisted of a catalytic domain that hydrolysed rhamnogalacturonan-containing substrates. The activity of Rgl11A against apple- and potato-derived rhamnogalacturonan substrates indicated that the enzyme had a strong preference for rhamnogalacturonans that contained galactose side chains, and which were not esterified. The enzyme had an absolute requirement for calcium, a high optimum pH, and catalysis was associated with an increase in absorbance at 235 nm, indicating that glycosidic bond cleavage was mediated via a beta-elimination mechanism. These data indicate that Rgl11A is a rhamnogalacturonan lyase and, together with the homologous Bacillus and Streptomyces proteins, comprise a new family of polysaccharide lyases. The presence of a family 2a CBM in Rgl11A, and in a P. cellulosa pectate lyase described in the accompanying paper [Brown, Mallen, Charnock, Davies and Black (2001) Biochem. J. 355, 155-165] suggests that the capacity to bind cellulose plays an important role in the activity of main-chain-cleaving Pseudomonas pectinases, in addition to cellulases and hemicellulases.

Purification and characterisation of a beta-galactosidase from Aspergillus aculeatus with activity towards (modified) exopolysaccharides from Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris B39 and B891

Beta-galactosidase from Aspergillus aculeatus was purified from a commercial source for its hydrolytic activity towards (modified) exopolysaccharides (EPSs) produced by Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris B39 and B891. The enzyme had a molecular mass of approximately 120 kDa, a pI between 5.3 and 5.7 and was optimally active at pH 5.4 and 55-60 degrees C. Based on the N-terminal amino acid sequence, the enzyme probably belongs to family 35 of the glycosyl hydrolases. The catalytic mechanism was shown to be retaining and transglycosylation products were demonstrated using lactose as a substrate. The beta-galactosidase was also characterised using its activity towards two EPSs having lactosyl side chains attached to different backbone structures. The enzyme degraded O-deacetylated EPS B891 faster than EPS B39. Furthermore, the presence of acetyl groups in EPS B891 slowed down the hydrolysing rate, but the enzyme was still able to release all terminally linked galactose.

A universal assay for screening expression libraries for carbohydrases

Although many assays are available for the screening of expression libraries for carbohydrases, some enzymes cannot be detected because their substrates are incompatible with the existing assays. One thing that all carbohydrases have in common is that they increase the number of reducing ends when degrading their substrates. In this paper we explore the possibility of detecting this increase with the highly sensitive bicinchoninic acid (BCA) reducing value assay. This assay can be used for the detection of all carbohydrases degrading any polysaccharide; enzymes with either an exo- or an endo-type of mechanism can be detected at the same time. A cDNA library of Aspergillus tubigensis expressed in Kluyveromyces lactis clones, was screened with this assay for the presence of xylogalacturonan degrading enzyme(s). High background absorbances caused by culture medium, by proteins produced by the clones and by substrate could be dealt with by using the precautions described in this note. Three xylogalacturonase producing clones were found using this procedure.

Amylose is synthesized in vitro by extension of and cleavage from amylopectin

Amylose synthesis was obtained in vitro from purified Chlamydomonas reinhardtii starch granules. Labeling experiments clearly indicate that initially the major granule-bound starch synthase extends glucans available on amylopectin. Amylose synthesis occurs thereafter at rates approaching or exceeding those of net polysaccharide synthesis. Although these results suggested that amylose originates from cleavage of a pre-existing external amylopectin chain, such transfer of chains from amylopectin to amylose was directly evidenced from pulse-chase experiments. The structure of the in vitro synthesized amylose could not be distinguished from in vivo synthesized amylose by a variety of methods. Moreover high molecular mass branched amylose synthesis preceded that of the low molecular mass, suggesting that chain termination occurs consequently to glucan cleavage. Short pulses of synthesis followed by incubation in buffer with or without ADP-Glc prove that transfer requires the presence of the glucosyl-nucleotide. Taken together, these observations make a compelling case for amylopectin acting as the in vivo primer for amylose synthesis. They further prove that extension is followed by cleavage. A model is presented that can explain the major features of amylose synthesis in plants. The consequences of intensive amylose synthesis on the crystal organization of amylopectin are reported through wide angle x-ray analysis of the in vitro synthesized polysaccharides.

Dimers of a GFG hexasaccharide occur in apple fruit xyloglucan

Apple fruit xyloglucan is predominantly built up from XXXG, XXFG, and XLFG units (G = beta-D-Glcp-, X = alpha-D-Xylp-(1-->6)-beta-D-Glcp-, L = beta-D-Galp-(1-->2)-alpha-D-Xylp-(1-->6)-beta-D-Glcp-, F = alpha-L-Fucp-(1-->2)-beta-D-Galp-(1-->2)-alpha-D-Xyl p-(1-->6)-beta-D-Glcp-). However, small amounts of oligosaccharides with a less heavily branched glucan backbone also occur. Structural analysis of two such oligosaccharides, isolated from a xyloglucan preparation digested with endoglucanase i.v., using a combination of FAB mass spectrometry and 1H NMR spectroscopy, afforded the identification of GFG and a dimer of GFG. The finding of the dodecasaccharide GFGGFG as a structural element of apple fruit xyloglucan is most unusual.

Action patterns and mapping of the substrate-binding regions of endo-(1-->5)-alpha-L-arabinanases from Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus aculeatus

The substrate binding sites of endo-(1-->5)-alpha-L-arabinanases (EC 3.2.1.99) from Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus aculeatus were investigated using reduced and regular (1-->5)-alpha-L-arabino-oligosaccharides and high performance anion exchange chromatographic analysis. Calculation of bond cleavage frequencies and kcat/K(m) parameters for these substrates enabled the determination of the number of arabinofuranosyl binding subsites and the estimation of the binding affinities of each subsite. The A. aculeatus endo-arabinanase has six subsites arranged symmetrically around the catalytic site, while the A. niger endo-arabinanase has five subsites; two from the catalytic site towards the non-reducing end of the bound substrate and three toward the reducing end. The two subsites directly adjacent to the catalytic sites in both the A. niger and A. aculeatus endo-arabinanase have near-zero net free energy of binding. These results are unlike most glycopyranosyl endo-hydrolases studied which have net negative (unfavourable) energies of interaction at these two subsites, and may be related to the greater conformational flexibility of arabinofuranosyl residues than glycopyranosyl residues. The complete subsite maps are also rationalized with regard to the observed action patterns of these enzymes on linear (1-->5)-alpha-L-arabinan.

Substrate specificity of endoglucanases: what determines xyloglucanase activity?

Endoglucanases from Trichoderma viride differ in their activity and mode of action towards xyloglucans. In order to explain the basis for their different behavior, the number of substrate-binding sites of three endoglucanases (endoI, endoIV, and endoV) were determined using bond cleavage frequencies of both normal and reduced cellodextrins and Ko/K(m). EndoIV differed from other endoglucanases described so far, in having at least nine putative binding sites. The specificities of the three endoglucanases towards various xyloglucans derived from apple fruit and potato were determined. Also, the release of oligosaccharides from these substrates in time was monitored. It was concluded that the endoglucanases prefer to bind unbranched glucosyl residues. Because most xyloglucans are composed of XXXG-type of building units, distant subsites are needed to bind xyloglucan. Having at least nine substrate-binding sites, endoIV seems to be well equipped to degrade xyloglucans which was confirmed by its high xyloglucanase activity.

Potato xyloglucan is built from XXGG-type subunits

Extraction of potato cell-wall material with solutions of increasing strength of alkali yielded a xyloglucan-rich fraction which was further purified by anion-exchange chromatography and treatment with alpha-amylase and endogalactanase. Methylation analysis indicated that the purified xyloglucan contained a high percentage of unsubstituted glucosyl residues compared to, for instance, apple xyloglucan, and equal amounts of Xyl-(1-->6)-, Gal-(1-->2)-Xyl(1-->6)-, and Ara-(1-->2)-Xyl-(1-->6)-sidechains. This xyloglucan was degraded with endoglucanase (endoV), purified from Trichoderma viride. The resulting digest was fractionated by BioGel P-2 chromatography, followed by preparative high-performance anion-exchange chromatography of the pentamer to nonamer fractions. The purified oligosaccharides were characterized by monosaccharide analysis, mass spectrometry, and degradation with an exoglucanase. Degradation of potato xyloglucan by another endoglucanase (endoIV) of Trichoderma viride yielded a different set of products. EndoIV released predominantly oligosaccharides with two unbranched glucosyl residues at the reducing terminus, whereas endoV also released products containing unbranched glucosyl residues on both ends of the molecule. A difference in the mode of action of endoglucanases with xyloglucan-degrading activity is demonstrated.

Fractionation of xyloglucan fragments and their interaction with cellulose

Tamarind seed xyloglucan was partially degraded with a purified endoglucanase (endoV) from Trichoderma viride. Analysis by high-performance anion-exchange chromatography showed that this digest was composed of fragments consisting of 1 to 10 repeating oligosaccharide units ([xg]1-[xg]10). To study the adsorption of xyloglucan fragments to cellulose in detail, this digest was fractionated on BioGel P-6. Fragments were separated satisfactorily up to 5 repeating oligosaccharide units ([xg]5). The galactose substitution of the fragments increased with increasing molecular weight. The BioGel P-6 pools, as well as polymeric xyloglucan ([xg] infinity), were tested for their ability to interact with Avicel crystalline cellulose. Quantitative binding to cellulose occurred for sequences consisting of (at least) 4 repeating units. The adsorption of [xg]4 to Avicel was very high relative to that of [xg] infinity. The dimensions of these fragments were such that they could also penetrate the smaller pores of cellulose. Apparently, the effective surface area for the polymers is much smaller. Adsorption isotherms of [xg] infinity and [xg]4 showed a pattern that is typical for polydisperse systems. However, the mechanisms underlying these patterns were different. At high xyloglucan concentrations, this polydispersity resulted in preferential adsorption of the larger molecules in the case of [xg] infinity and a more extensive colonization of the smaller pores of cellulose in the case of [xg]4. The pH influenced the interaction between xyloglucan (fragments) and cellulose to only a small extent.