Decreased NK-cell tumour immunosurveillance consequent to JAK inhibition enhances metastasis in breast cancer models

The JAK/STAT pathway is an attractive target for breast cancer therapy due to its frequent activation, and clinical trials evaluating JAK inhibitors (JAKi) in advanced breast cancer are ongoing. Using patient biopsies and preclinical models of breast cancer, we demonstrate that the JAK/STAT pathway is active in metastasis. Unexpectedly, blocking the pathway with JAKi enhances the metastatic burden in experimental and orthotopic models of breast cancer metastasis. We demonstrate that this prometastatic effect is due to the immunosuppressive activity of JAKi with ensuing impairment of NK-cell-mediated anti-tumour immunity. Furthermore, we show that immunostimulation with IL-15 overcomes the enhancing effect of JAKi on metastasis formation. Our findings highlight the importance of evaluating the effect of targeted therapy on the tumour environment. The impact of JAKi on NK cells and the potential value of immunostimulators to overcome the weakened tumour immunosurveillance, are worthwhile considering in the clinical setting of breast cancer.

JAK inhibitors are currently undergoing evaluation in clinical trials for advanced breast cancer. Here, the authors show that JAK pathway inhibition increases metastasis in mouse models of breast cancer by impairing NK anti-tumour activity and that these side effects can be overcome by addition of IL-15.

Combinatorial targeting of FGF and ErbB receptors blocks growth and metastatic spread of breast cancer models

Introduction

Targeting receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) with kinase inhibitors is a clinically validated anti-cancer approach. However, blocking one signaling pathway is often not sufficient to cause tumor regression and the effectiveness of individual inhibitors is often short-lived. As alterations in fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) activity have been implicated in breast cancer, we examined in breast cancer models with autocrine FGFR activity the impact of targeting FGFRs in vivo with a selective kinase inhibitor in combination with an inhibitor of PI3K/mTOR or with a pan-ErbB inhibitor.

Methods

Using 4T1 or 67NR models of basal-like breast cancer, tumor growth was measured in mice treated with an FGFR inhibitor (dovitinib/TKI258), a PI3K/mTOR inhibitor (NVP-BEZ235) or a pan-ErbB inhibitor (AEE788) individually or in combination. To uncover mechanisms underlying inhibitor action, signaling pathway activity was examined in tumor lysates and transcriptome analysis carried out to identify pathways upregulated by FGFR inhibition. Anti-phosphotyrosine receptor antibody arrays (P-Tyr RTK) were also used to screen 4T1 tumors.

Results

The combination of dovitinib + NVP-BEZ235 causes tumor stasis and strong down-regulation of the FRS2/Erk and PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathways. P-Tyr RTK arrays identified high levels of P-EGFR and P-ErbB2 in 4T1 tumors. Testing AEE788 in the tumor models revealed that the combination of dovitinib + AEE788 resulted in blockade of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, prolonged tumor stasis and in the 4T1 model, a significant decrease in lung metastasis. The results show that in vivo these breast cancer models become dependent upon co-activation of FGFR and ErbB receptors for PI3K pathway activity.

Conclusions

The work presented here shows that in the breast cancer models examined, the combination of dovitinib + NVP-BEZ235 or dovitinib + AEE788 results in strong inhibition of tumor growth and a block in metastatic spread. Only these combinations strongly down-regulate the FGFR/FRS2/Erk and PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathways. The resultant decrease in mitosis and increase in apoptosis was consistently stronger in the dovitinib + AEE788 treatment-group, suggesting that targeting ErbB receptors has broader downstream effects compared to targeting only PI3K/mTOR. Considering that sub-classes of human breast tumors co-express ErbB receptors and FGFRs, these results have implications for targeted therapy.

Flt3 ligand-receptor interaction is important for maintenance of early thymic progenitor numbers in steady-state thymopoiesis

T-cell production throughout life depends on efficient colonization and intrathymic expansion of BM-derived hematopoietic precursors. After irradiation-induced thymic damage, thymic recovery is facilitated by Flt3 ligand (FL), expressed by perivascular fibroblasts surrounding the thymic entry site of Flt3 receptor-positive progenitor cells. Whether intrathymic FL-Flt3 interactions play a role in steady-state replenishment of T cells remains unknown. Here, using competitive BM transplantation studies and fetal thymic organ cultures we demonstrated the continued numerical advantage of Flt3+ intrathymic T-cell precursors. Sub-kidney capsule thymic transplantation experiments, in which WT and FL-/- thymic lobes were grafted into FL-/- recipients, revealed that FL expression by the thymic microenvironment plays a role in steady-state thymopoiesis. The deficiency of the most immature thymic T-cell precursors correlated to upregulation of FL by thymic MTS15+ fibroblasts, suggesting that the number of Flt3+ progenitor cells may regulate the thymic expression of this cytokine. Together, these results show that FL expression by thymic stromal fibroblasts interacting with Flt3+ T-cell progenitors is important for the physiological maintenance of early T-cell development.

Intrathymic expression of Flt3 ligand enhances thymic recovery after irradiation

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) requires conditioning treatments such as irradiation, which leads to a severely delayed recovery of T cell immunity and constitutes a major complication of this therapy. Currently, our understanding of the mechanisms regulating thymic recovery is limited. It is known that a subpopulation of bone marrow (BM)–derived thymic immigrant cells and the earliest intrathymic progenitors express the FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 (Flt3) receptor; however, the functional significance of this expression in the thymus is not known. We used the BM transplant model to investigate the importance of Flt3 ligand (FL) for the regeneration of the T cell compartment. We show that FL is expressed in the adult mouse thymus on the surface of perivascular fibroblasts. These cells surround the proposed thymic entry site of Flt3 receptor–positive T cell progenitors. After irradiation, perivascular FL expression is up-regulated and results in an enhanced recovery of thymic cellularity. Thymic grafting experiments confirm an intrathymic requirement for FL. Collectively, these results show that thymic stromal cell–mediated FL–Flt3 receptor interactions are important in the reconstitution of thymopoiesis early after lethal irradiation and HSCT, and provide a functional relevance to the expression of the Flt3 receptor on intrathymic T cell progenitors.

Essential role for the lymphostromal plasma membrane Ly-6 superfamily molecule thymic shared antigen 1 in development of the embryonic adrenal gland

Thymic shared antigen 1 (TSA-1) is a plasma membrane protein of the Ly-6 superfamily expressed on thymocytes, thymic stromal cells, and other cells of the hematopoietic system. TSA-1 is also expressed in other nonhematopoietic tissues, in particular, embryonic and adult adrenal glands. To address the function of TSA-1, we generated mutant mice in which TSA-1 expression was inactivated by gene targeting. Here we show that deletion of both TSA-1 alleles results in abnormal adrenal gland development and midgestational lethality due to cardiac abnormalities. We also report that TSA-1-deficient adrenal glands have significantly reduced levels of the catecholamines noradrenaline and adrenaline. We conclude that TSA-1 is required for normal embryonic development but that deletion of its expression does not obviously impair lymphoid development.

Acute prenatal androgen treatment increases birth weights and growth rates in lambs

One hundred seventy-four Border Leicester x Merino ewes were mated to Romney Marsh rams. The ewes were randomly allocated to either an untreated control group or to one of four treatment groups. The treated groups were defined by the time (days postcoitus) of acute prenatal androgen treatment (APAT). The selected treatment times were 30, 40, 50, and 60 d postcoitus. Acute prenatal androgen treatment involved a single 2-mL i.m. injection of 100 mg/mL testosterone propionate. The statistical analysis of all measured parameters was performed using an analysis of variance via a general linear model. Postnatal plasma testosterone concentrations were not affected by treatment (P > .05). The time of treatment affected the observed responses to APAT (P < .05). Acute prenatal androgen treatment increased birth weight, ADG, and live weight and altered wool growth, plasma insulin levels, and ano-genital distance (P < .05).

LaTulippe--a case study of a one hundred and sixty kilometre runner

A 55 year old runner covered 160 km within a 20 hour period. His speed averaged 8.16 km/h, at an estimated 59.1% of maximum oxygen intake. After the first four hours of running, one of five fluids was taken in rotation every twelve minutes. Volumes ingested whe heart rate for the final four hours (125/min) was not increased relative to oxygen consumption for this portion of the run. Constancy of heart rate, continued urine production and formal fluid balance calculations all indicate that hydration was well maintained over the run. Caloric intake averaged 480 kcal/h (2.01 MJH), being greatest fro the ice-creas/syrup mixture; the energy deficit (56/KA/H, 235 kJ/h) was small during that part of the run in which food was provided.