Utility of In Vitro Bioactivity as a Lower Bound Estimate of In Vivo Adverse Effect Levels and in Risk-Based Prioritization

Use of high-throughput, in vitro bioactivity data in setting a point-of-departure (POD) has the potential to accelerate the pace of human health safety evaluation by informing screening-level assessments. The primary objective of this work was to compare PODs based on high-throughput predictions of bioactivity, exposure predictions, and traditional hazard information for 448 chemicals. PODs derived from new approach methodologies (NAMs) were obtained for this comparison using the 50th (PODNAM, 50) and the 95th (PODNAM, 95) percentile credible interval estimates for the steady-state plasma concentration used in in vitro to in vivo extrapolation of administered equivalent doses. Of the 448 substances, 89% had a PODNAM, 95 that was less than the traditional POD (PODtraditional) value. For the 48 substances for which PODtraditional < PODNAM, 95, the PODNAM and PODtraditional were typically within a factor of 10 of each other, and there was an enrichment of chemical structural features associated with organophosphate and carbamate insecticides. When PODtraditional < PODNAM, 95, it did not appear to result from an enrichment of PODtraditional based on a particular study type (eg, developmental, reproductive, and chronic studies). Bioactivity:exposure ratios, useful for identification of substances with potential priority, demonstrated that high-throughput exposure predictions were greater than the PODNAM, 95 for 11 substances. When compared with threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) values, the PODNAM, 95 was greater than the corresponding TTC value 90% of the time. This work demonstrates the feasibility, and continuing challenges, of using in vitro bioactivity as a protective estimate of POD in screening-level assessments via a case study.

Comparative expression profiling reveals an essential role for raldh2 in epimorphic regeneration

Zebrafish have the remarkable ability to regenerate body parts including the heart and fins by a process referred to as epimorphic regeneration. Recent studies have illustrated that similar to adult zebrafish, early life stage larvae also possess the ability to regenerate the caudal fin. A comparative microarray analysis was used to determine the degree of conservation in gene expression among the regenerating adult caudal fin, adult heart, and larval fin. Results indicate that these tissues respond to amputation/injury with strikingly similar genomic responses. Comparative analysis revealed raldh2, a rate-limiting enzyme for the synthesis of retinoic acid, as one of the most highly induced genes across the three regeneration platforms. In situ localization and functional studies indicate that raldh2 expression is critical for the formation of wound epithelium and blastema. Patterning during regenerative outgrowth was considered to be the primary function of retinoic acid signaling; however, our results suggest that it is also required for early stages of tissue regeneration. Expression of raldh2 is regulated by Wnt and fibroblast growth factor/ERK signaling.

MicroRNAs control neurobehavioral development and function in zebrafish

microRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as regulators of a broad spectrum of neurodevelopmental processes, including brain morphogenesis, neuronal differentiation, and survival. While the role of miRNAs in establishing and maintaining the developing nervous system is widely appreciated, the developmental neurobehavioral role of miRNAs has yet to be defined. Here we show that transient disruption of brain morphogenesis by ethanol exposure results in behavioral hyperactivity in larval zebrafish challenged with changes in lighting conditions. Aberrations in swimming activity persist in juveniles that were developmentally exposed to ethanol. During early neurogenesis, multiple gene expression profiling studies revealed widespread changes in mRNA and miRNA abundance in ethanol-exposed embryos. Consistent with a role for miRNAs in neurobehavioral development, target prediction analyses identified multiple miRNAs misexpressed in the ethanol-exposed cohorts that were also predicted to target inversely expressed transcripts known to influence brain morphogenesis. In vivo knockdown of miR-9/9* or miR-153c persistently phenocopied the effect of ethanol on larval and juvenile swimming behavior. Structural analyses performed on adults showed that repression of miR-153c during development impacts craniofacial skeletal development. Together, these data support an integral role for miRNAs in the establishment of vertebrate neurobehavioral and skeletal systems.

Molecular signaling networks that choreograph epimorphic fin regeneration in zebrafish - a mini-review

This short review provides a current synopsis of caudal fin regeneration in zebrafish with an emphasis on the molecular signaling networks that dictate epimorphic regeneration. At the outset, the fundamentals of caudal fin architecture and the stages of epimorphic regeneration are described. This is followed by a detailed look at the main networks implicated in fin regeneration, namely the Wnt, fibroblast growth factor, activin-betaA, retinoic acid and hedgehog signaling pathways. Throughout this mini-review, these molecular networks are examined through the lens of wound healing, blastema formation or regenerative outgrowth, three of the main stages of epimorphic regeneration. Next, the emerging role of noncoding RNAs as regulators of regeneration and mechanisms of regenerative termination are discussed. Finally, the implications for future research and the broader field of regenerative medicine are examined.

Effects of 670-nm phototherapy on development

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the present study was to assess the survival and hatching success of chickens (Gallus gallus) exposed in ovo to far-red (670-nm) LED therapy.

BACKGROUND DATA

Photobiomodulation by light in the red to near-infrared range (630-1000 nm) using low-energy lasers or light-emitting diode (LED) arrays has been shown to accelerate wound healing and improve recovery from ischemic injury. The mechanism of photobiomodulation at the cellular level has been ascribed to the activation of mitochondrial respiratory chain components resulting in initiation of a signaling cascade that promotes cellular proliferation and cytoprotecton.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fertile chicken eggs were treated once per day from embryonic days 0-20 with 670-nm LED light at a fluence of 4 J/cm2. In ovo survival and death were monitored by daily candling (after Day 4).

RESULTS

We observed a substantial decrease in overall and third-week mortality rates in the light-treated chickens. Overall, there was approximately a 41.5% decrease in mortality rate in the light-treated chickens (NL: 20%; L: 11.8%). During the third week of development, there was a 68.8% decrease in the mortality rate in light-treated chickens (NL: 20%; L: 6.25%). In addition, body weight, crown-rump length, and liver weight increased as a result of the 670-nm phototherapy. Light-treated chickens pipped (broke shell) earlier and had a shorter duration between pip and hatch.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that 670-nm phototherapy by itself does not adversely affect developing embryos and may improve the hatching survival rate.

High-throughput toxicogenomic screening of chemicals in the environment using metabolically competent hepatic cell cultures

The ToxCast in vitro screening program has provided concentration-response bioactivity data across more than a thousand assay endpoints for thousands of chemicals found in our environment and commerce. However, most ToxCast screening assays have evaluated individual biological targets in cancer cell lines lacking integrated physiological functionality (such as receptor signaling, metabolism). We evaluated differentiated HepaRGTM cells, a human liver-derived cell model understood to effectively model physiologically relevant hepatic signaling. Expression of 93 gene transcripts was measured by quantitative polymerase chain reaction using Fluidigm 96.96 dynamic arrays in response to 1060 chemicals tested in eight-point concentration-response. A Bayesian framework quantitatively modeled chemical-induced changes in gene expression via six transcription factors including: aryl hydrocarbon receptor, constitutive androstane receptor, pregnane X receptor, farnesoid X receptor, androgen receptor, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha. For these chemicals the network model translates transcriptomic data into Bayesian inferences about molecular targets known to activate toxicological adverse outcome pathways. These data also provide new insights into the molecular signaling network of HepaRGTM cell cultures.

Bioinformatics Resource Manager v2.3: an integrated software environment for systems biology with microRNA and cross-species analysis tools

BACKGROUND

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are noncoding RNAs that direct post-transcriptional regulation of protein coding genes. Recent studies have shown miRNAs are important for controlling many biological processes, including nervous system development, and are highly conserved across species. Given their importance, computational tools are necessary for analysis, interpretation and integration of high-throughput (HTP) miRNA data in an increasing number of model species. The Bioinformatics Resource Manager (BRM) v2.3 is a software environment for data management, mining, integration and functional annotation of HTP biological data. In this study, we report recent updates to BRM for miRNA data analysis and cross-species comparisons across datasets.

RESULTS

BRM v2.3 has the capability to query predicted miRNA targets from multiple databases, retrieve potential regulatory miRNAs for known genes, integrate experimentally derived miRNA and mRNA datasets, perform ortholog mapping across species, and retrieve annotation and cross-reference identifiers for an expanded number of species. Here we use BRM to show that developmental exposure of zebrafish to 30 uM nicotine from 6-48 hours post fertilization (hpf) results in behavioral hyperactivity in larval zebrafish and alteration of putative miRNA gene targets in whole embryos at developmental stages that encompass early neurogenesis. We show typical workflows for using BRM to integrate experimental zebrafish miRNA and mRNA microarray datasets with example retrievals for zebrafish, including pathway annotation and mapping to human ortholog. Functional analysis of differentially regulated (p<0.05) gene targets in BRM indicates that nicotine exposure disrupts genes involved in neurogenesis, possibly through misregulation of nicotine-sensitive miRNAs.

CONCLUSIONS

BRM provides the ability to mine complex data for identification of candidate miRNAs or pathways that drive phenotypic outcome and, therefore, is a useful hypothesis generation tool for systems biology. The miRNA workflow in BRM allows for efficient processing of multiple miRNA and mRNA datasets in a single software environment with the added capability to interact with public data sources and visual analytic tools for HTP data analysis at a systems level. BRM is developed using Java™ and other open-source technologies for free distribution (http://www.sysbio.org/dataresources/brm.stm).

FutureTox IV Workshop Summary: Predictive Toxicology for Healthy Children

FutureTox IV, a Society of Toxicology Contemporary Concepts in Toxicology workshop, was held in November 2018. Building upon FutureTox I, II, and III, this conference focused on the latest science and technology for in vitro profiling and in silico modeling as it relates to predictive developmental and reproductive toxicity (DART). Publicly available high-throughput screening data sets are now available for broad in vitro profiling of bioactivities across large inventories of chemicals. Coupling this vast amount of mechanistic data with a deeper understanding of molecular embryology and post-natal development lays the groundwork for using new approach methodologies (NAMs) to evaluate chemical toxicity, drug efficacy, and safety assessment for embryo-fetal development. NAM is a term recently adopted in reference to any technology, methodology, approach, or combination thereof that can be used to provide information on chemical hazard and risk assessment to avoid the use of intact animals (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], Strategic plan to promote the development and implementation of alternative test methods within the tsca program, 2018, https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2018-06/documents/epa_alt_strat_plan_6-20-18_clean_final.pdf). There are challenges to implementing NAMs to evaluate chemicals for developmental toxicity compared with adult toxicity. This forum article reviews the 2018 workshop activities, highlighting challenges and opportunities for applying NAMs for adverse pregnancy outcomes (eg, preterm labor, malformations, low birth weight) as well as disorders manifesting postnatally (eg, neurodevelopmental impairment, breast cancer, cardiovascular disease, fertility). DART is an important concern for different regulatory statutes and test guidelines. Leveraging advancements in such approaches and the accompanying efficiencies to detecting potential hazards to human development are the unifying concepts toward implementing NAMs in DART testing. Although use of NAMs for higher level regulatory decision making is still on the horizon, the conference highlighted novel testing platforms and computational models that cover multiple levels of biological organization, with the unique temporal dynamics of embryonic development, and novel approaches for estimating toxicokinetic parameters essential in supporting in vitro to in vivo extrapolation.

Retinoic acid-dependent regulation of miR-19 expression elicits vertebrate axis defects

Retinoic acid (RA) is involved in multifarious and complex functions necessary for vertebrate development. RA signaling is reliant on strict enzymatic regulation of RA synthesis and metabolism. Improper spatiotemporal expression of RA during development can result in vertebrate axis defects. microRNAs (miRNAs) are also pivotal in orchestrating developmental processes. While mechanistic links between miRNAs and axial development are established, the role of miRNAs in regulating metabolic enzymes responsible for RA abundance during axis formation has yet to be elucidated. Our results uncovered a role of miR-19 family members in controlling RA metabolism through the regulation of CYP26A1 during vertebrate axis formation. Global miRNA expression profiling showed that developmental RA exposure suppressed the expression of miR-19 family members during zebrafish somitogenesis. A reporter assay confirmed that cyp26a1 is a bona fide target of miR-19 in vivo. Transient knockdown of miR-19 phenocopied axis defects caused by RA exposure. Exogenous miR-19 rescued the axis defects induced by RA exposure. Taken together, these results indicate that the teratogenic effects of RA exposure result, in part, from repression of miR-19 expression and subsequent misregulation of cyp26a1. This highlights a previously unidentified role of miR-19 in facilitating vertebrate axis development via regulation of RA signaling.

Survivorship and Mortality Implications of Developmental 670-nm Phototherapy: Dioxin Co-exposure

OBJECTIVE

We assessed the effect of 670-nm light therapy on dioxin-induced embryonic mortality in chickens (Gallus gallus).

BACKGROUND DATA

Developmental photobiomodulation using 670-nm light-emitting diode (LED) arrays improves hatching success and increases body size in hatchling chickens. Photobiomodulation also stimulates signaling pathways resulting in improved energy metabolism, antioxidant production and cell survival. Dioxin causes embryonic mortality, including increases in the frequency of chicken embryos that pip but can't go to hatch. We hypothesized that 670-nm LED therapy would attenuate dioxin-induced embryo mortality.

METHODS

Fertile chicken eggs were injected with control or 2, 20, or 200 ppt 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD; dioxin) prior to the start of incubation. Half of the eggs in each dose group were treated once per day from embryonic days 0-20 with 670-nm LED light at a fluence of 4 J/cm(2). In ovo survival and hatching success were compared between dose groups and LED treatment.

RESULTS

LED therapy decreased the embryonic mortality rate by 41%, resulting in increased embryonic survival and improved hatching success in eggs exposed to 200 ppt dioxin. However, at sub-lethal dioxin concentrations and in oil-treated controls, LED therapy slightly increased mortality.

CONCLUSION

Overall survivorship and hatching success of chicks developmentally exposed to dioxin concentrations above the lethality threshold (>100 ppt TCDD) is improved by 670-nm LED treatment administered throughout the gestation period, but the relationship may be complicated by an LED-oil interaction.

Pyrethrum Allergic Contact Dermatitis in Humans—Real?, Common?, or Not Documented?: An Evidence-Based Approach

Pyrethrum has been reported to produce allergic contact dermatitis in humans. Moreover, it has been speculated that cross reactions occur in ragweed-sensitized people. This review presents the botany, contemporary chemistry, and case reports of alleged allergic contact dermatitis. Our interpretation suggests that the evidence presented in literature does not show that allergic contact dermatitis results from exposure to pyrethrum. Similarly, the data do not suggest cross reactions in ragweed-sensitized people. Changes in the chemical composition of the refined pyrethrins suggest the putative sensitizer is present at a lower level in today's refined extracts than in ground pyrethrum flowers or the extracts used earlier.

Cutaneous contact urticaria to pyrethrum-real?, common?, or not documented?: an evidence-based approach

Reports suggest that pyrethrum, the insecticidally active extract from Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium, can induce Type I hypersensitivity reactions in humans. Using knowledge of pyrethrum chemistry and an evidence-based analysis of literature, whether current refined pyrethrum induces and/or elicits skin manifestations of contact urticaria was assessed. Current extraction and refinement techniques suggest that refined pyrethrum lacks the presence of significant, if any, proteins speculated to induce Type I hypersensitivity. Our interpretation suggests that no reports of Type I reactions presented in the literature fulfill the criteria for immunologic contact urticaria. Future patient testing with current commercial material should clarify its Type I immunologic potential, if any.

Confirmation of high-throughput screening data and novel mechanistic insights into VDR-xenobiotic interactions by orthogonal assays

High throughput screening (HTS) programs have demonstrated that the Vitamin D receptor (VDR) is activated and/or antagonized by a wide range of structurally diverse chemicals. In this study, we examined the Tox21 qHTS data set generated against VDR for reproducibility and concordance and elucidated functional insights into VDR-xenobiotic interactions. Twenty-one potential VDR agonists and 19 VDR antagonists were identified from a subset of >400 compounds with putative VDR activity and examined for VDR functionality utilizing select orthogonal assays. Transient transactivation assay (TT) using a human VDR plasmid and Cyp24 luciferase reporter construct revealed 20/21 active VDR agonists and 18/19 active VDR antagonists. Mammalian-2-hybrid assay (M2H) was then used to evaluate VDR interactions with co-activators and co-regulators. With the exception of a select few compounds, VDR agonists exhibited significant recruitment of co-regulators and co-activators whereas antagonists exhibited considerable attenuation of recruitment by VDR. A unique set of compounds exhibiting synergistic activity in antagonist mode and no activity in agonist mode was identified. Cheminformatics modeling of VDR-ligand interactions were conducted and revealed selective ligand VDR interaction. Overall, data emphasizes the molecular complexity of ligand-mediated interactions with VDR and suggest that VDR transactivation may be a target site of action for diverse xenobiotics.

Brief Report: Embryonic Growth and Hatching Implications of Developmental 670-nm Phototherapy and Dioxin Co-exposure

OBJECTIVE

We assessed the effect of 670-nm light therapy on growth and hatching kinetics in chickens (Gallus gallus) exposed to dioxin.

BACKGROUND DATA

Photobiomodulation has been shown to stimulate signaling pathways resulting in improved energy metabolism, antioxidant production, and cell survival. In ovo treatment with 670-nm light-emitting diode (LED) arrays improves hatching success and increases hatchling size in control chickens. Under conditions where developmental dioxin exposure is above the lethality threshold (100 ppt), phototherapy attenuates dioxin-induced early embryonic death. We hypothesized that 670-nm LED therapy would attenuate dioxin-induced developmental anomalies and increase hatching success.

METHODS

Fertile chicken eggs were injected with control oil, 2, 20, or 200 ppt dioxin, or 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) prior to the start of incubation. Half of the eggs in each dose group were treated once per day from embryonic days 0-20 with 670-nm LED light at a fluence of 4 J/cm2. Hatchling size, organ weights, and energy parameters were compared between dose groups and LED treatment.

RESULTS

LED therapy resulted in earlier pip times (small hole created 12-24 h prior to hatch), and increased hatchling size and weight in the 200 ppt dose groups. However, there appears to be an LED-oil interaction within the oil-treated controls that results in longer hatch times and decreased liver weight within the LED control dose groups in comparison to the non-LED control dose groups.

CONCLUSION

Size and hatching times suggest that the hatching success and preparedness of chicks developmentally exposed to dioxin concentrations above the lethality threshold is improved by 670-nm LED treatment administered throughout the gestation period, but the relationship may be complicated by an LED-oil interaction.

Screening for drinking water contaminants of concern using an automated exposure-focused workflow

BACKGROUND

The number of chemicals present in the environment exceeds the capacity of government bodies to characterize risk. Therefore, data-informed and reproducible processes are needed for identifying chemicals for further assessment. The Minnesota Department of Health (MDH), under its Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CEC) initiative, uses a standardized process to screen potential drinking water contaminants based on toxicity and exposure potential.

OBJECTIVE

Recently, MDH partnered with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Research and Development (ORD) to accelerate the screening process via development of an automated workflow accessing relevant exposure data, including exposure new approach methodologies (NAMs) from ORD's ExpoCast project.

METHODS

The workflow incorporated information from 27 data sources related to persistence and fate, release potential, water occurrence, and exposure potential, making use of ORD tools for harmonization of chemical names and identifiers. The workflow also incorporated data and criteria specific to Minnesota and MDH's regulatory authority. The collected data were used to score chemicals using quantitative algorithms developed by MDH. The workflow was applied to 1867 case study chemicals, including 82 chemicals that were previously manually evaluated by MDH.

RESULTS

Evaluation of the automated and manual results for these 82 chemicals indicated reasonable agreement between the scores although agreement depended on data availability; automated scores were lower than manual scores for chemicals with fewer available data. Case study chemicals with high exposure scores included disinfection by-products, pharmaceuticals, consumer product chemicals, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, pesticides, and metals. Scores were integrated with in vitro bioactivity data to assess the feasibility of using NAMs for further risk prioritization.

SIGNIFICANCE

This workflow will allow MDH to accelerate exposure screening and expand the number of chemicals examined, freeing resources for in-depth assessments. The workflow will be useful in screening large libraries of chemicals for candidates for the CEC program.

Pyrethrins and pyrethrosin content in commercial allergen extracts

BACKGROUND

Pyrethrins are the insecticidally active components of pyrethrum extract, derived from flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium and used in commercial and consumer insecticide products. Most dermal testing performed with pyrethrum extracts was done before current refined pyrethrum concentrate became available (before 1967).

OBJECTIVE

We analyzed presently commercially available pyrethrum allergen extracts to determine the concentration of pyrethrins and the putative sensitizer pyrethrosin.

METHODS

Six commercial pyrethrum allergen extracts were purchased from four major allergen suppliers and analyzed for pyrethrin I and pyrethrosin by using a capillary gas chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector.

RESULTS

The commercial pyrethrum allergen extracts contained no detectable pyrethrins or pyrethrosin. In comparison, the pyrethrum standard provided by the McLaughlin Gormely King Company, a major refiner of pyrethrum, contained 20% pyrethrins and 0.49% pyrethrosin. No compounds observed in the chromatogram of the refined pyrethrum concentrate were present in the allergen extracts.

CONCLUSIONS

Caution should be used when interpreting the results of tests performed with current pyrethrum allergen extracts because pyrethrins and pyrethrosin may not be present. Moreover, unknown components such as high-molecular-weight proteins or other impurities that may cause dermal reactions could be present in significant amounts.