LYVE-1, a new homologue of the CD44 glycoprotein, is a lymph-specific receptor for hyaluronan

The extracellular matrix glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan (HA) is an abundant component of skin and mesenchymal tissues where it facilitates cell migration during wound healing, inflammation, and embryonic morphogenesis. Both during normal tissue homeostasis and particularly after tissue injury, HA is mobilized from these sites through lymphatic vessels to the lymph nodes where it is degraded before entering the circulation for rapid uptake by the liver. Currently, however, the identities of HA binding molecules which control this pathway are unknown. Here we describe the first such molecule, LYVE-1, which we have identified as a major receptor for HA on the lymph vessel wall. The deduced amino acid sequence of LYVE-1 predicts a 322-residue type I integral membrane polypeptide 41% similar to the CD44 HA receptor with a 212-residue extracellular domain containing a single Link module the prototypic HA binding domain of the Link protein superfamily. Like CD44, the LYVE-1 molecule binds both soluble and immobilized HA. However, unlike CD44, the LYVE-1 molecule colocalizes with HA on the luminal face of the lymph vessel wall and is completely absent from blood vessels. Hence, LYVE-1 is the first lymph-specific HA receptor to be characterized and is a uniquely powerful marker for lymph vessels themselves.

Mesenchymal stem cells: a double-edged sword in regulating immune responses

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been employed successfully to treat various immune disorders in animal models and clinical settings. Our previous studies have shown that MSCs can become highly immunosuppressive upon stimulation by inflammatory cytokines, an effect exerted through the concerted action of chemokines and nitric oxide (NO). Here, we show that MSCs can also enhance immune responses. This immune-promoting effect occurred when proinflammatory cytokines were inadequate to elicit sufficient NO production. When inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) production was inhibited or genetically ablated, MSCs strongly enhance T-cell proliferation in vitro and the delayed-type hypersensitivity response in vivo. Furthermore, iNOS^−/− MSCs significantly inhibited melanoma growth. It is likely that in the absence of NO, chemokines act to promote immune responses. Indeed, in CCR5^−/−CXCR3^−/− mice, the immune-promoting effect of iNOS^−/− MSCs is greatly diminished. Thus, NO acts as a switch in MSC-mediated immunomodulation. More importantly, the dual effect on immune reactions was also observed in human MSCs, in which indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) acts as a switch. This study provides novel information about the pathophysiological roles of MSCs.

LIGHT, a TNF-like molecule, costimulates T cell proliferation and is required for dendritic cell-mediated allogeneic T cell response

LIGHT is a recently identified member of the TNF superfamily and its receptors, herpesvirus entry mediator and lymphotoxin beta receptor, are found in T cells and stromal cells. In this study, we demonstrate that LIGHT is selectively expressed on immature dendritic cells (DCs) generated from human PBMCs. In contrast, LIGHT is not detectable in DCs either freshly isolated from PBMCs or rendered mature in vitro by LPS treatment. Blockade of LIGHT by its soluble receptors, lymphotoxin beta receptor-Ig or HVEM-Ig, inhibits the induction of DC-mediated primary allogeneic T cell response. Furthermore, engagement of LIGHT costimulates human T cell proliferation, amplifies the NF-kappaB signaling pathway, and preferentially induces the production of IFN-gamma, but not IL-4, in the presence of an antigenic signal. Our results suggest that LIGHT is a costimulatory molecule involved in DC-mediated cellular immune responses.

Cigarette smoking and pancreatic cancer: an analysis from the International Pancreatic Cancer Case-Control Consortium (Panc4)

BACKGROUND

To evaluate the dose-response relationship between cigarette smoking and pancreatic cancer and to examine the effects of temporal variables.

METHODS

We analyzed data from 12 case-control studies within the International Pancreatic Cancer Case-Control Consortium (PanC4), including 6507 pancreatic cases and 12 890 controls. We estimated summary odds ratios (ORs) by pooling study-specific ORs using random-effects models.

RESULTS

Compared with never smokers, the OR was 1.2 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.0-1.3) for former smokers and 2.2 (95% CI 1.7-2.8) for current cigarette smokers, with a significant increasing trend in risk with increasing number of cigarettes among current smokers (OR=3.4 for ≥35 cigarettes per day, P for trend<0.0001). Risk increased in relation to duration of cigarette smoking up to 40 years of smoking (OR=2.4). No trend in risk was observed for age at starting cigarette smoking, whereas risk decreased with increasing time since cigarette cessation, the OR being 0.98 after 20 years.

CONCLUSIONS

This uniquely large pooled analysis confirms that current cigarette smoking is associated with a twofold increased risk of pancreatic cancer and that the risk increases with the number of cigarettes smoked and duration of smoking. Risk of pancreatic cancer reaches the level of never smokers ∼20 years after quitting.

Unanticipated admission after ambulatory surgery--a prospective study

PURPOSE

To determine the incidence, the reasons, and the predictive factors for unanticipated admission after ambulatory surgery.

METHODS

Preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative data were collected prospectively on 15,172 consecutive ambulatory surgical patients during a 32-month period. The data were built into a statistical model, and predictive factors were identified and classified.

RESULTS

The overall incidence of unanticipated admission was 1.42%. Admitted patients were more likely to be older, male, and ASA status II or III. Duration of anaesthesia was longer, and surgery was more likely to be completed after 3 pm. Length of stay in the Postanaesthesia Care Unit and the Ambulatory Surgery Unit was longer. Surgical reasons were cited in 38.1% of admitted patients; anaesthesia-related reasons were cited in 25%; social reasons accounted for 19.5%, and medical reasons for 17.2%. Ear, nose and throat (ENT) patients had the highest unanticipated admission rate (18.2%), followed by urology (4.8%) and chronic pain block (3.9%). Gynaecological patients had the lowest rate (0.4%). Among the predictive factors found were male, ASA status II and III, long duration of surgery, surgery finishing after 3 pm, postoperative bleeding, excessive pain, nausea and vomiting, and excessive drowsiness or dizziness.

CONCLUSION

Earlier operating time for certain surgical procedures, screening for proper support at home, and implementation of clinical pathways to deal aggressively with problems such as pain, nausea and vomiting should decrease the incidence of unanticipated admission.

Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase alpha activates Src-family kinases and controls integrin-mediated responses in fibroblasts

BACKGROUND

Fyn and c-Src are two of the most widely expressed Src-family kinases. Both are strongly implicated in the control of cytoskeletal organization and in the generation of integrin-dependent signalling responses in fibroblasts. These proteins are representative of a large family of tyrosine kinases, the activity of which is tightly controlled by inhibitory phosphorylation of a carboxyterminal tyrosine residue (Tyr527 in chicken c-Src); this phosphorylation induces the kinases to form an inactive conformation. Whereas the identity of such inhibitory Tyr527 kinases has been well established, no corresponding phosphatases have been identified that, under physiological conditions, function as positive regulators of c-Src and Fyn in fibroblasts.

RESULTS

Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase alpha (RPTPalpha) was inactivated by homologous recombination. Fibroblasts derived from these RPTPalpha-/- mice had impaired tyrosine kinase activity of both c-Src and Fyn, and this was accompanied by a concomitant increase in c-Src Tyr527 phosphorylation. RPTPalpha-/- fibroblasts also showed a reduction in the rate of spreading on fibronectin substrates, a trait that is a phenocopy of the effect of inactivation of the c-src gene. In response to adhesion on a fibronectin substrate, RPTPalpha-/- fibroblasts also exhibited characteristic deficiencies in integrin-mediated signalling responses, such as decreased tyrosine phosphorylation of the c-Src substrates Fak and p 130(cas), and reduced activation of extracellular signal regulated (Erk) MAP kinases.

CONCLUSIONS

These observations demonstrate that RPTPalpha functions as a physiological upstream activator of Src-family kinases in fibroblasts and establish this tyrosine phosphatase as a newly identified regulator of integrin signalling.

Unique genetic profiles from cerebrospinal fluid cell-free DNA in leptomeningeal metastases of EGFR-mutant non-small-cell lung cancer: a new medium of liquid biopsy

Background

Leptomeningeal metastases (LM) are more frequent in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations. Due to limited access to leptomeningeal lesions, the purpose of this study was to explore the potential role of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) as a source of liquid biopsy in patients with LM.

Patients and methods

Primary tumor, CSF, and plasma in NSCLC with LM were tested by next-generation sequencing. In total, 45 patients with suspected LM underwent lumbar puncture, and those with EGFR mutations diagnosed with LM were enrolled.

Results

A total of 28 patients were enrolled in this cohort; CSF and plasma were available in 26 patients, respectively. Driver genes were detected in 100% (26/26), 84.6% (22/26), and 73.1% (19/26) of samples comprising CSF cell-free DNA (cfDNA), CSF precipitates, and plasma, respectively; 92.3% (24/26) of patients had much higher allele fractions in CSF cfDNA than the other two media. Unique genetic profiles were captured in CSF cfDNA compared with those in plasma and primary tissue. Multiple copy number variations (CNVs) were mainly identified in CSF cfDNA, and MET copy number gain identified in 47.8% (11/23) of patients was the most frequent one, while other CNVs included ERBB2, KRAS, ALK, and MYC. Moreover, loss of heterozygosity (LOH) of TP53 was identified in 73.1% (19/26) CSF cfDNA, which was much higher than that in plasma (2/26, 7.7%; P < 0.001). There was a trend towards a higher frequency of concomitant resistance mutations in patients with TP53 LOH than those without (70.6% versus 33.3%; P = 0.162). EGFR T790M was identified in CSF cfDNA of 30.4% (7/23) of patients who experienced TKI progression.

Conclusion

CSF cfDNA could reveal the unique genetic profiles of LM and should be considered as the most representative liquid biopsy medium for LM in EGFR-mutant NSCLC.

Phylogenetic distinction of iNOS and IDO function in mesenchymal stem cell-mediated immunosuppression in mammalian species

Mammalian mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been shown to be strongly immunosuppressive in both animal disease models and human clinical trials. We have reported that the key molecule mediating immunosuppression by MSCs is species dependent: indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) in human and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in mouse. In the present study, we isolated MSCs from several mammalian species, each of a different genus, and investigated the involvement of IDO and iNOS during MSC-mediated immunosuppression. The characterization of MSCs from different species was by adherence to tissue culture plastic, morphology, specific marker expression, and differentiation potential. On the basis of the inducibility of IDO and iNOS by inflammatory cytokines in MSCs, the tested mammalian species fall into two distinct groups: IDO utilizers and iNOS utilizers. MSCs from monkey, pig, and human employ IDO to suppress immune responses, whereas MSCs from mouse, rat, rabbit, and hamster utilize iNOS. Interestingly, based on the limited number of species tested, the iNOS-utilizing species all belong to the phylogenetic clade, Glires. Although the evolutionary significance of this divergence is not known, we believe that this study provides critical guidance for choosing appropriate animal models for preclinical studies of MSCs.

Dimerization inhibits the activity of receptor-like protein-tyrosine phosphatase-alpha

Protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) are vital for regulating tryosine phosphorylation in many processes, including growth and differentiation. The regulation of receptor-like PTP (RPTP) activity remains poorly understood, but based on the crystal structure of RPTPalpha domain 1 we have proposed that dimerization can negatively regulate activity, through the interaction of an inhibitory 'wedge' on one monomer with the catalytic cleft of domain 1 in the other monomer. Here we show that dimerization inhibits the activity of a full-length RPTP in vivo. We generated stable disulphide-bonded full-length RPTPalpha homodimers by expressing mutants with single cysteines at different positions in the ectodomain juxtamembrane region. Expression of wild-type RPTPalpha and Phe135Cys and Thr141Cys mutants in RPTPalpha-null mouse embryo cells increased dephosphorylation and activity of Tyr 529 in the protein tyrosine kinase c-Src; in contrast, expression of a Pro137Cys mutant did not. Mutation of Pro 210/211 to leucine in the inhibitory wedge of the Pro137Cys mutant restored its ability to activate c-Src, indicating that dimerization may inhibit full-length RPTPalpha activity in a manner stereochemically consistent with RPTPalpha crystal structures. Our results suggest that RPTPalpha activity can in principle be negatively regulated by dimerization in vivo.

Alcohol consumption and pancreatic cancer: a pooled analysis in the International Pancreatic Cancer Case-Control Consortium (PanC4)

BACKGROUND

Heavy alcohol drinking has been related to pancreatic cancer, but the issue is still unsolved.

METHODS

To evaluate the role of alcohol consumption in relation to pancreatic cancer, we conducted a pooled analysis of 10 case-control studies (5585 cases and 11,827 controls) participating in the International Pancreatic Cancer Case-Control Consortium. We computed pooled odds ratios (ORs) by estimating study-specific ORs adjusted for selected covariates and pooling them using random effects models.

RESULTS

Compared with abstainers and occasional drinkers (< 1 drink per day), we observed no association for light-to-moderate alcohol consumption (≤ 4 drinks per day) and pancreatic cancer risk; however, associations were above unity for higher consumption levels (OR = 1.6, 95% confidence interval 1.2-2.2 for subjects drinking ≥ 9 drinks per day). Results did not change substantially when we evaluated associations by tobacco smoking status, or when we excluded participants who reported a history of pancreatitis, or participants whose data were based upon proxy responses. Further, no notable differences in pooled risk estimates emerged across strata of sex, age, race, study type, and study area.

CONCLUSION

This collaborative-pooled analysis provides additional evidence for a positive association between heavy alcohol consumption and the risk of pancreatic cancer.

Lack of association between the interferon-alpha signature and longitudinal changes in disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus

OBJECTIVE

To study the longitudinal expression of interferon (IFN)-inducible genes in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and determine their suitability as disease biomarkers.

METHODS

RNA was isolated from the peripheral blood of 94 patients with SLE and 11 controls and reverse transcribed into cDNA. The expression levels of five IFN-responsive genes (LY6E, OAS1, IFIT1, ISG15 and MX1) were determined by quantitative PCR, normalised to GAPDH and summed to generate a global IFN score. Patients were followed longitudinally for a period of 3-12 months, and the association between disease activity, as measured by the SLE disease activity index (SLEDAI-2K), and other clinical and laboratory variables was examined.

RESULTS

The expression of all five IFN-responsive genes was significantly higher in patients with SLE than in controls. The expression of LY6E, OAS1, IFIT1 and the global IFN score was associated with high disease activity. The global IFN score was also associated with active renal disease, a decreased C3, and the presence of anti-dsDNA or anti-RNA binding protein antibodies at a single point in time. However, there was a poor correlation between changes in this score and changes in disease activity, C3 or anti-dsDNA antibody levels in patients followed longitudinally. In most patients the levels of IFN-induced gene expression remained relatively stable over 3-12 months despite marked changes in disease activity. Nevertheless, in patients with low/moderate disease activity, those with high IFN scores had a more recent history of sustained high disease activity.

CONCLUSION

The findings indicate that IFN-induced gene expression has limited clinical utility as a biomarker of acute changes in disease activity.

TR1, a new member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily, induces fibroblast proliferation and inhibits osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption

A newly identified member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily shows activities associated with osteoclastogenesis inhibition and fibroblast proliferation. This new member, called TR1, was identified from a search of an expressed sequence tag database, and encodes 401 amino acids with a 21-residue signal sequence. Unlike other members of TNFR, TR1 does not contain a transmembrane domain and is secreted as a 62 kDa glycoprotein. TR1 gene maps to chromosome 8q23-24.1 and its mRNA is abundantly expressed on primary osteoblasts, osteogenic sarcoma cell lines, and primary fibroblasts. The receptors for TR1 were detected on a monocytic cell line (THP-1) and in human fibroblasts. Scatchard analyses indicated two classes of high and medium-high affinity receptors with a kD of approximately 45 and 320 pM, respectively. Recombinant TR1 induced proliferation of human foreskin fibroblasts and potentiated TNF-induced proliferation in these cells. In a coculture system of osteoblasts and bone marrow cells, recombinant TR1 completely inhibited the differentiation of osteoclast-like multinucleated cell formation in the presence of several bone-resorbing factors. TR1 also strongly inhibited bone-resorbing function on dentine slices by mature osteoclasts and decreased 45Ca release in fetal long-bone organ cultures. Anti-TR1 monoclonal antibody promoted the formation of osteoclasts in mouse marrow culture assays. These results indicate that TR1 has broad biological activities in fibroblast growth and in osteoclast differentiation and its functions.

Evidence for a dystrophin missense mutation as a cause of X-linked dilated cardiomyopathy

BACKGROUND

X-linked dilated cardiomyopathy (XLCM) has previously been shown to be due to mutations in the dystrophin gene, which is located at Xp21. Mutations in the 5' portion of the gene, including the muscle promoter, exon 1, and the exon 1-intron 1 splice site, have been reported previously. The purpose of this study was to analyze the originally described family with XLCM (and other) for dystrophin mutations.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to amplify genomic DNA, and reverse-transcriptase PCR amplified cDNA from RNA obtained from heart and lymphoblastoid cell lines. Primers to the muscle promoter, brain promoter, and Purkinje cell promoter were designed, in addition to the exon 1 to exon 14 regions of dystrophin. Single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis was used for mutation detection, and DNA sequencing defined the mutation. Protein modeling was used for amino acid and secondary structure analysis. A missense mutation in exon 9 at nucleotide 1043 was identified that causes an alanine to be substituted for threonine, a highly conserved amino acid, at position 279 (T279A). This mutation results in a change in polarity in the evolutionarily conserved first hinge region (H1) of the protein and substitution of a beta-sheet for alpha-helix in this portion of the protein, destabilizing the protein.

CONCLUSIONS

A novel missense mutation in exon 9 of dystrophin causing an abnormality at H1 leads to the cardiospecific phenotype of XLCM.

Evidence for a locus on chromosome 1 that influences vulnerability to alcoholism and affective disorder

OBJECTIVE

Depression (major depression or depressive syndrome) is more prevalent in alcoholic than in nonalcoholic subjects in families with multiple members with alcoholism studied as part of the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism). First-degree relatives of probands with comorbid alcoholism and depression have a higher prevalence of both disorders than relatives of probands with alcoholism alone, and both groups have a higher prevalence than the relatives of comparison subjects selected without regard to psychopathology. Data from the collaborative study were used to test three phenotypes (comorbid alcoholism and depression, alcoholism or depression, and depression) for genetic linkage.

METHOD

Genome-wide sibling-pair linkage analyses were performed with the phenotypes comorbid alcoholism and depression, alcoholism or depression, and depression (major depression or depressive syndrome). Analyses were performed in two data sets (initial and replication data sets) from subject groups ascertained with identical criteria, as well as in the combined data set.

RESULTS

Peak lod scores on chromosome 1 (near 120 centimorgan) for the alcoholism or depression phenotype were 5.12, 1.52, and 4.66 in the initial, replication, and combined data sets, respectively. The corresponding lod scores on chromosome 2 were 2.79, 0.20, and 3.26; on chromosome 6, they were 3.39, 0.00, and 0.92; and on chromosome 16, they were 3.13, 0.00, and 2.06. Lod scores on chromosome 2 for the comorbid alcoholism and depression phenotype in the three data sets were 0.00, 4.12, and 2.16, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that a gene or genes on chromosome 1 may predispose some individuals to alcoholism and others to depression (which may be alcohol induced). Loci on other chromosomes may also be of interest.

A phase III randomised controlled trial of erlotinib vs gefitinib in advanced non-small cell lung cancer with EGFR mutations

Background:

A phase III trial was conducted to compare the safety and efficacy of erlotinib with that of gefitinib in advanced non-small cell lung cancer harbouring epidermal growth factor receptor mutations in exon 19 or 21.

Methods:

Eligible patients were randomised to receive erlotinib (150 mg per day) or gefitinib (250 mg per day) orally until disease progression or unacceptable toxicity. We aimed to determine whether erlotinib is superior to gefitinib in efficacy. The primary end point was progression-free survival.

Results:

A total of 256 patients were randomised to receive erlotinib (N=128) or gefitinib (N=128). Median progression-free survival was not better with erlotinib than with gefitinib (13.0 vs 10.4 months, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.62–1.05, P=0.108). The corresponding response rates and median overall survival were 56.3% vs 52.3% (P=0.530) and 22.9 vs 20.1 months (95% CI 0.63–1.13, P=0.250), respectively. There were no significant differences in grade 3/4 toxicities between the two arms (P=0.172).

Conclusions:

The primary end point was not met. Erlotinib was not significantly superior to gefitinib in terms of efficacy in advanced non-small cell lung cancer with epidermal growth factor receptor mutations in exon 19 or 21, and the two treatments had similar toxicities.

Maternal immune activation dysregulation of the fetal brain transcriptome and relevance to the pathophysiology of autism spectrum disorder

Maternal immune activation (MIA) via infection during pregnancy is known to increase risk for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, it is unclear how MIA disrupts fetal brain gene expression in ways that may explain this increased risk. Here we examine how MIA dysregulates rat fetal brain gene expression (at a time point analogous to the end of the first trimester of human gestation) in ways relevant to ASD-associated pathophysiology. MIA downregulates expression of ASD-associated genes, with the largest enrichments in genes known to harbor rare highly penetrant mutations. MIA also downregulates expression of many genes also known to be persistently downregulated in the ASD cortex later in life and which are canonically known for roles in affecting prenatally late developmental processes at the synapse. Transcriptional and translational programs that are downstream targets of highly ASD-penetrant FMR1 and CHD8 genes are also heavily affected by MIA. MIA strongly upregulates expression of a large number of genes involved in translation initiation, cell cycle, DNA damage and proteolysis processes that affect multiple key neural developmental functions. Upregulation of translation initiation is common to and preserved in gene network structure with the ASD cortical transcriptome throughout life and has downstream impact on cell cycle processes. The cap-dependent translation initiation gene, EIF4E, is one of the most MIA-dysregulated of all ASD-associated genes and targeted network analyses demonstrate prominent MIA-induced transcriptional dysregulation of mTOR and EIF4E-dependent signaling. This dysregulation of translation initiation via alteration of the Tsc2-mTor-Eif4e axis was further validated across MIA rodent models. MIA may confer increased risk for ASD by dysregulating key aspects of fetal brain gene expression that are highly relevant to pathophysiology affecting ASD.

Cystatin E is a novel human cysteine proteinase inhibitor with structural resemblance to family 2 cystatins

A new member of the human cystatin superfamily, called cystatin E, has been found by expressed sequence tag (EST) sequencing in amniotic cell and fetal skin epithelial cell cDNA libraries. The sequence of a full-length amniotic cell cDNA clone contained an open reading frame encoding a putative 28-residue signal peptide and a mature protein of 121 amino acids, including four cysteine residues and motifs of importance for the inhibitory activity of Family 2 cystatins like cystatin C. Recombinant cystatin E was produced in a baculovirus expression system and isolated. An antiserum against the recombinant protein could be used for affinity purification of cystatin E from human urine, as confirmed by N-terminal sequencing. The mature recombinant protein processed by insect cells started at amino acid 4 (cystatin C numbering), and displayed reversible inhibition of papain and cathepsin B (Ki values of 0.39 and 32 nM, respectively), in competition with substrate. Cystatin E is thus a functional cysteine proteinase inhibitor despite relatively low amino acid sequence similarities with human cystatins (26-34% identity with sequences for the Family 2 cystatins C, D, S, SN, and SA; <30% with the Family 1 cystatins, A and B, and domains 2 and 3 of the Family 3 cystatin, kininogen). Unlike other human low Mr cystatins, cystatin E is a glycoprotein, carrying an N-linked carbohydrate chain at position 108. Northern blot analysis revealed that the cystatin E gene is expressed in most human tissues, with the highest mRNA amounts found in uterus and liver. A strikingly high incidence of cystatin E clones in cDNA libraries from fetal skin epithelium and amniotic membrane cells (>0.5% of clones sequenced) indicates a protective role of cystatin E during fetal development.

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Performance of the ATLAS trigger system in 2015

During 2015 the ATLAS experiment recorded [Formula: see text] of proton-proton collision data at a centre-of-mass energy of [Formula: see text]. The ATLAS trigger system is a crucial component of the experiment, responsible for selecting events of interest at a recording rate of approximately 1 kHz from up to 40 MHz of collisions. This paper presents a short overview of the changes to the trigger and data acquisition systems during the first long shutdown of the LHC and shows the performance of the trigger system and its components based on the 2015 proton-proton collision data.

Cystatin F is a glycosylated human low molecular weight cysteine proteinase inhibitor

A previously undescribed human member of the cystatin superfamily called cystatin F has been identified by expressed sequence tag sequencing in human cDNA libraries. A full-length cDNA clone was obtained from a library made from mRNA of CD34-depleted cord blood cells. The sequence of the cDNA contained an open reading frame encoding a putative 19-residue signal peptide and a mature protein of 126 amino acids with two disulfide bridges and enzyme-binding motifs homologous to those of Family 2 cystatins. Unlike other human cystatins, cystatin F has 2 additional Cys residues, indicating the presence of an extra disulfide bridge stabilizing the N-terminal region of the molecule. Recombinant cystatin F was produced in a baculovirus expression system and characterized. The mature recombinant protein processed by insect cells had an N-terminal segment 7 residues longer than that of cystatin C and displayed reversible inhibition of papain and cathepsin L (Ki = 1.1 and 0.31 nM, respectively), but not cathepsin B. Like cystatin E/M, cystatin F is a glycoprotein, carrying two N-linked carbohydrate chains at positions 36 and 88. An immunoassay for quantification of cystatin F showed that blood contains low levels of the inhibitor (0.9 ng/ml). Six B cell lines in culture secreted barely detectable amounts of cystatin F, but several T cell lines and especially one myeloid cell line secreted significant amounts of the inhibitor. Northern blot analysis revealed that the cystatin F gene is primarily expressed in peripheral blood cells and spleen. Tissue expression clearly different from that of the ubiquitous inhibitor, cystatin C, was also indicated by a high incidence of cystatin F clones in cDNA libraries from dendritic and T cells, but no clones identified by expressed sequence tag sequencing in several B cell libraries and in >600 libraries from other human tissues and cells.