Performance of goats in a detour and a problem-solving test following long-term cognitive test exposure

Cognitive research in long-lived species commonly involves using the same animals in different experiments. It is unclear whether the participation in cognitive tests can notably alter the performance of individuals in subsequent conceptually different tests. We therefore investigated whether exposure to cognitive tests affects future test performance of goats. We used three treatment groups: goats with long-term exposure to human-presented object-choice tests (for visual discrimination and reversal learning tests + cognitive test battery), goats that were isolated as for the test exposure but received a reward from the experimenter without being administered the object-choice tests, and goats that were isolated but neither received a reward nor were administered the tests. All treatment groups were subsequently tested in two conceptually different cognitive tests, namely a spatial A-not-B detour test and an instrumental problem-solving test. We tested dairy goats, selected for high productivity, and dwarf goats, not selected for production traits, each at the same two research sites. We did not find notable differences between treatments with respect to the goats' detour or problem-solving performance. However, high variation was observed between the research sites, the selection lines, and among individuals, highlighting potential pitfalls of making accurate comparisons of cognitive test performances.

Goats work for food in a contrafreeloading task

Contrafreeloading (CFL) is the phenomenon when animals work for a resource although an identical resource is available for free. Possible explanations for CFL are that animals seek context for species-specific behaviours or to control their environments. We investigated whether goats show CFL and whether breeding for productivity traits has altered its occurrence. In a manipulation task, we compared two selection lines: 27 Nigerian dwarf goats, not bred for productivity traits, and 30 dairy goats, bred for high milk yield. Over 10 trials, each goat could perform one of three behaviours: not participating in the trial, feeding for free from an open door, or opening a sliding door for a feed of similar value. The results were analysed using an Item Response Tree (IRTree) generalized linear mixed model (GLMM). The fitted probabilities to participate were > 0.87 over all trials in both selection lines. For dwarf goats, the probability of choosing the closed door, and thereby demonstrating CFL, increased from 0.30 in Trial 1 to 0.53 in Trial 10. For dairy goats, this probability was constant at approximately 0.43. Unlike dwarf goats, dairy goats were faster to approach the closed compared to the open door. Overall, our results suggest that both selection lines were similarly interested in CFL.

The effect of milk allowance on behavior and weight gains in dairy calves

The objective of this study was to investigate how milk allowance affects body weight gains and behavior before, during, and after weaning in dairy calves. Fifty-six Holstein calves were randomly assigned at 1wk of age to 1 of 4 feeding treatments of whole pasteurized milk: 6, 8, 10, or 12 L/d. Milk allowance was reduced by 50% at d 42, and then reduced by 20% per day starting at d 50, so that calves were completely weaned at d 55. Calves were provided ad libitum access to calf starter and hay. Body weight was measured weekly from 2 to 10wk of age. Milk intake increased with milk allowance as intended, although actual intakes were lower than the treatment allowance (e.g., averaging 5.66±0.19 L on the 6-L treatment and 9.41±0.21 L on the 12-L treatment before weaning). Intake of calf starter was higher for calves that were fed less milk before weaning (averaging 0.25±0.03kg/d and 0.05±0.03kg/d on the 6-L and 12-L treatments, respectively) and also during the weaning period (averaging 1.15±0.13kg/d and 0.54±0.14kg/d on these same treatments), but we observed no effect after weaning. Time spent at the hay feeder did not differ with treatment. Average daily gain was higher for calves that were fed more milk, increasing from 0.77±0.04kg/d with the 6-L treatment to 0.90±0.03kg/d with the 12-L treatment. Before weaning, calves fed less milk engaged in more unrewarded visits to the milk feeder, averaging 11.1±0.73 visits/d with the 6-L treatment and 0.4±0.78 visits/d with the 12-L treatment. During weaning, calves fed less milk still had more unrewarded visits to the milk feeder than calves fed more milk (19.7±1.64 visits/d with the 6-L treatment versus 10.1±1.74 visits/d with the 12-L treatment), but treatments did not differ after weaning. We conclude that higher milk allowances result in weight gain advantages before weaning that can persist beyond weaning, and that the high number of unrewarded visits to the milk feeder by calves that were fed less milk are indicative of persistent hunger.

Interobserver variation in the assessment of pelvic organ prolapse

The aim of this study was to determine the interobserver agreement of two grading systems for pelvic organ prolapse: the vaginal profile and the International Continence Society (ICS) draft proposal. Forty-nine consecutive women referred for evaluation of urinary incontinence and/or pelvic organ prolapse were studied. Patients were first examined by a physician and a nurse clinician using the vaginal profile, followed by an examination according to the technique described in the ICS draft proposal for standardization of terminology (1994). kappa statistic and Pearson's correlation coefficient were used to determine interobserver variability for the ICS system by overall stage, by stage-specific comparison, and by specific anatomic location. The vaginal profile was evaluated by obtaining a kappa for overall degree of prolapse, stage-specific comparison and by anatomic area. The kappa for the ICS stage was 0.79 (P < 0.001), and the kappa for the vaginal profile by area of greatest prolapse was 0.68 (P < 0.001), indicating substantial interobserver agreement for both systems. The ICS system was noted to have substantial interobserver agreement by a stage-specific comparison. All anatomic locations of the ICS staging system were found to correlate significantly, and a high degree of interobserver precision was found. The vaginal profile also showed significant interobserver agreement by overall degree of prolapse, by specific degree of prolapse, and by anatomic area. It was concluded that both the proposed ICS staging system and the traditional vaginal profile show significant interobserver agreement both by overall stage, stage-specific analysis and specific location. The registered nurse examination correlated well with the physician examination, indicating that the most important factor in obtaining reproducible results may be definition and close attention to examination technique.

Infarctions and non-invasive diagnosis in moyamoya disease: two case reports

An 31-year-old female and a 32-year-old male had clinical signs and angiographical confirmation of adult Moyamoya disease (MMD). Bilateral carotid siphon (C1), middle cerebral artery (M1), and anterior cerebral artery (A1) stenoses were diagnosed by means of transcranial Doppler sonography (TCD) and visualized during angio Magnetic Resonance Imaging (angio-MRI). In the woman, a 'rete mirabile' of dilated and tortuous lenticulostriate arteries could be visualized during proton weighted and T1-weighted MRI sequences. CO2-dependent vasomotor reactivity was bilaterally reduced and completely exhausted in the territory of right middle cerebral artery in both patients. Cerebral perfusion reserve, defined as the ratio of cerebral blood flow (CBF) to cerebral blood volume (CBV) was assessed by SPECT, and was found to be dramatically reduced in the anterior region of the male patient. Both patients had bilateral small subcortical infarctions in the corona radiata. TCD and MRI are important noninvasive techniques for a preliminary diagnosis of Moyamoya disease. Infarctions in Moyamoya disease may be hemodynamically produced low-flow infarctions.

A case of cortical deafness

At the age of 42 Lothar H. suffered a left-sided ischaemic brain lesion with transient aphasia, followed at the age of 49 by a right-sided ischemic infarction, which caused a continuous inability to understand spoken language and to identify tones and noises. He was still able to discriminate between single qualities of pure tones. The ERA-results showed the central acoustic pathways of the brain-stem to be intact. The occurrence of cortical deafness following bilateral lesions of the acoustic cortex and adjoining cortical centres supports the view that human auditory recognition is represented in both temporoparietal areas.

[Antidromic sensory action potentials of the median and ulnar nerve.--Normal value and discussion of methodology (author's transl)]

The sensory conduction velocities of the median and ulnar nerve and the amplitudes of the evoked nerve action potentials were measured and evaluated statistically in 116 healthy subjects with the antidromic technique. Both conduction times and amplitudes were correlated to age and to the nerve segment studied (finger--wrist or wrist--elbow). Moreover amplitudes varied with the distance between the recording electrodes; in spite of their great interindividual differences they may be of diagnostic help. In clinical electrophysiology this method is useful in revealing especially minor injuries of the brachial nerves and plexus with little or no involvement of the motor fibres. In such cases the antidromic action potentials can be registered quickly, reliably and nearly painless. The orthodromic technique is much more complicated, an averager or some other technical supplement often is necessary for recording clearly visible potentials, because the amplitudes are lower. On the other hand, orthodromic potentials may still detectable with an averager in severe nerve lesions where antidromic potentials are absent.