pH-dependent bilayer destabilization by an amphipathic peptide

A 30-residue amphipathic peptide was designed to interact with uncharged bilayers in a pH-dependent fashion. This was achieved by a pH-induced random coil-alpha-helical transition, exposing a hydrophobic face in the peptide. The repeat unit of the peptide, glutamic acid-alanine-leucine-alanine (GALA), positioned glutamic acid residues on the same face of the helix, and at pH 7.5, charge repulsion between aligned Glu destabilized the helix. A tryptophan was included at the N-terminal as a fluorescence probe. The rate and extent of peptide-induced leakage of contents from large, unilamellar vesicles composed of egg phosphatidylcholine were dependent on pH. At pH 5.0 with a lipid/peptide mole ratio of 500/1, 100% leakage of vesicle contents occurred within 1 min. However, no leakage of vesicle contents occurred at pH 7.5. Circular dichroism measurements indicated that the molar ellipticity at 222 nm changed from about -4000 deg cm2 dmol-1 at pH 7.6 to -11,500 deg cm2 dmol-1 at pH 5.1, indicating a substantial increase in helical content as the pH was reduced. Changes in molar ellipticity were most significant over the same pH range where a maximum change in the extent and rate of leakage occurred. The tryptophan fluorescence emission spectra and the circular dichroism spectra of the peptide, in the presence of lipid, suggest that GALA did not associate with the bilayer at neutral pH. A change in the circular dichroism spectrum and a blue shift of the maximum of the tryptophan fluorescence emission spectra at pH 5.0, in the presence of lipid, indicated an association of GALA with the bilayer.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Lipid modification of GRN163, an N3'-->P5' thio-phosphoramidate oligonucleotide, enhances the potency of telomerase inhibition

The vast majority of human cancers express telomerase activity, while most human somatic cells do not have detectable telomerase activity. Since telomerase plays a critical role in cell immortality, it is an attractive target for a selective cancer therapy. Oligonucleotides complementary to the RNA template region of human telomerase (hTR) have been shown to be effective inhibitors of telomerase and, subsequently, cancer cell growth in vitro. We show here that a lipid-modified N3'-->P5' thio-phosphoramidate oligonucleotide (GRN163L) inhibits telomerase more potently than its parental nonconjugated thio-phosphoramidate sequence (GRN163). Cells were treated with both the first- (GRN163) and second-generation (GRN163L) oligonucleotides, including a mismatch control, with or without a transfection enhancer reagent. GRN163L inhibited telomerase activity effectively in a dose-dependent manner, even without the use of a transfection reagent. The IC50 values for GRN163 in various cell lines were on average sevenfold higher than for GRN163L. GRN163L inhibition of telomerase activity resulted in a more rapid loss of telomeres and cell growth than GRN163. This report is the first to show that lipid modification enhanced the potency of the novel GRN163 telomerase inhibitor. These results suggest that the lipid-conjugated thio-phosphoramidates could be important for improved pharmacodynamics of telomerase inhibitors in cancer therapy.

Oligonucleotide N3'-->P5' phosphoramidates as efficient telomerase inhibitors

Human telomerase is a unique reverse transcriptase that is expressed in multiple cancers, but not in the vast majority of normal cells. The enzyme is responsible for telomere protection and maintenance, and supports the proliferative immortality of cancer cells. Thus, it has been proposed that the specific inhibition of telomerase activity in tumors might have significant and beneficial therapeutic effects. To this goal we have designed, synthesized, and evaluated several oligonucleotide N3'-->P5' phosphoramidates as telomerase inhibitors. These oligonucleotides are complementary to the template region of the RNA domain of telomerase (hTR). The prepared compounds were evaluated in HME50-5E breast epithelial cells, where their effects on telomerase activity were determined using a cell-based telomerase (TRAP) assay at 24 as well as 72 h after exposure to compounds. The oligo-N3'-->P5' phosphoramidate inhibited telomerase activity in cells in the presence of the cellular up-take enhancer (FuGENE6) in a dose- and sequence-dependent manner, with IC(50) values of approximately 1 nM. Inhibition of telomerase activity by this compound without the lipid carrier was not efficient. However, the isosequential oligonucleotide N3'-->P5' thio-phosphoramidate was able to inhibit telomerase activity with or without lipid carriers at nM, or low-microM concentrations, respectively. This inhibition of telomerase activity in HME50-5E cells by the oligonucleotide thio-phosphoramidates was also sequence specific. Long-term treatment of the cells with 0.5 microM of FuGENE6 formulated 13-mer thio-phosphoramidates, fully complementary to hTR, resulted in gradual telomere shortening, followed by cellular senescence and apoptosis, as would be predicted for a telomerase inhibitor. The mismatched control compound had no effect on cell proliferation. The results suggest that the oligonucleotide N3'-->P5' phosphoramidates, and particularly thio-phosphoramidates, might be further developed as selective anti-telomerase reagents.

Detection of DNA adducts in HL-60 cells treated with hydroquinone and p-benzoquinone by 32P-postlabeling

We have examined DNA adduct formation and cytotoxicity in HL-60 cells treated with either hydroquinone (HQ) or p-benzoquinone (p-BQ). Treatment of HL-60 cells with either HQ or p-BQ produced the same DNA adduct. The DNA adduct level varied from 0.05 to 10 adducts per 10(7) nucleotides as a function of treatment time and concentration for both compounds. To achieve the same DNA adduct level required higher concentrations and longer treatment times with HQ compared to p-BQ. p-BQ was also more cytotoxic to HL-60 cells than HQ. Reaction of calf thymus DNA with a p-BQ/HQ mixture produced five adducts as detected by 32P-postlabeling. Two isomers of (hydroxy)-1,N2-benzetheno-2'- deoxyguanosine-3'-phosphate were isolated from the reaction of 2'-deoxyguanosine-3'-phosphate with a p-BQ/HQ mixture and one of the isomers was identified as adduct no. 1 of the DNA reaction. The DNA adduct formed in HL-60 cells treated with HQ or p-BQ did not correspond to any of the principal adducts formed in DNA reacted with p-BQ/HQ. This result suggests that cellular mechanisms modify DNA adduct formation by HQ and p-BQ.

Telomerase can inhibit the recombination-based pathway of telomere maintenance in human cells

Telomere length can be maintained by telomerase or by a recombination-based pathway. Because individual telomeres in cells using the recombination-based pathway of telomere maintenance appear to periodically become extremely short, cells using this pathway to maintain telomeres may be faced with a continuous state of crisis. We expressed telomerase in a human cell line that uses the recombination-based pathway of telomere maintenance to test whether telomerase would prevent telomeres from becoming critically short and examine the effects that this might have on the recombination-based pathway of telomere maintenance. In these cells, telomerase maintains the length of the shortest telomeres. In some cases, the long heterogeneous telomeres are completely lost, and the cells now permanently contain short telomeres after only 40 population doublings. This corresponds to a telomere reduction rate of 500 base pairs/population doubling, a rate that is much faster than expected for normal telomere shortening but is consistent with the rapid telomere deletion events observed in cells using the recombination-based pathway of telomere maintenance (Murnane, J. P., Sabatier, L., Marder, B. A., and Morgan, W. F. (1994) EMBO J. 13, 4953-4962). We also observed reductions in the fraction of cells containing alternative lengthening of telomere-associated promyelocytic leukemia bodies and extrachromosomal telomere repeats; however, no alterations in the rate of sister chromatid exchange were observed. Our results demonstrate that human cells using the recombination-based pathway of telomere maintenance retain factors required for telomerase to maintain telomeres and that once the telomerase-based pathway of telomere length regulation is engaged, recombination-based elongation of telomeres can be functionally inhibited.

Telomerase inhibition with an oligonucleotide telomerase template antagonist: in vitro and in vivo studies in multiple myeloma and lymphoma

The effects of telomerase inhibition with an oligonucleotide N3' --> P5' thiophosphoramidate (GRN163) complementary to the telomerase template region were examined on human multiple myeloma (MM) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) cell lines, primary MM cells, and tumor xenografts. GRN163 treatment reduced telomerase levels in all cells and induced more rapid telomeric shortening. Continuous GRN163 treatment for 7 to 14 days resulted in proliferative arrest, morphologic changes, and apoptosis characteristic of cell crisis in tumor cell lines with short (1.7-5.4 kb) but not long (9-11 kb) telomeres. Intratumoral administration of GRN163 also inhibited the growth of MM and NHL xenografts established from cell lines with short telomeres (Hs602 lymphoma, 2.7 kb; CAG myeloma, 2.7 kb) and increased tumor apoptosis. However, GRN163 therapy of NHL xenografts established from cells with long telomeres (11.0 kb) had equivocal effects on tumor growth and did not induce apoptosis during this time frame. Systemic daily intraperitoneal administration of GRN163 in myeloma xenografts with short telomere lengths also decreased tumor telomerase levels and reduced tumor volumes. These data demonstrate that telomerase is important for the replication of mature B-cell neoplasia by stabilizing short telomeres, and they suggest that telomerase inhibition represents a novel therapeutic approach to MM and NHL.

Telomerase inhibitors--oligonucleotide phosphoramidates as potential therapeutic agents

We have designed, synthesized, and evaluated using physical, chemical and biochemical assays various oligonucleotide N3'-->P5' phosphoramidates, as potential telomerase inhibitors. Among the prepared compounds were 2'-deoxy, 2'-hydroxy, 2'-methoxy, 2'-ribo-fluoro, and 2'-arabino-fluoro oligonucleotide phosphoramidates, as well as novel N3'-->P5' thio-phosphoramidates. The compounds demonstrated sequence specific and dose dependent activity with IC50 values in the sub-nM to pM concentration range.

Interaction of human telomerase with its primer substrate

Telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein responsible for maintaining the ends of linear chromosomes in nearly all eukaryotic cells. In humans, expression of the enzyme is limited primarily to the germ line and progenitor cell populations. In the absence of telomerase activity, telomeres shorten with each cell division until a critical length is reached, which can result in the cessation of cell division. The enzyme is required for cell immortality, and its activity has been detected in the vast majority of human tumors. Because of this, telomerase is an attractive target for inhibition in anticancer therapy. To learn more about the biochemistry of the human enzyme and its substrate recognition, we have examined the binding properties of single-stranded oligonucleotide primers that serve as telomerase substrates in vitro. We have used highly purified human enzyme and employed a two-primer method for determining the dissociation rates of these primers. Primers having sequence permutations of (TTAGGG)(3) were found to have considerably different affinities. They had t(1/2) values that ranged from 14 min to greater than 1200 min at room temperature. A primer ending in the GGG register formed the most stable complex with the enzyme. This particular register imparted stability to a nontelomeric primer resulting in a nearly 100-fold decrease in the k(off). We have found that interactions of telomerase with primer substrates are stabilized mainly by contacts with the protein subunit of the enzyme (hTERT). Base-pairing between the primer and the template region of telomerase contributes minimally to its stabilization.

The benzene metabolite p-benzoquinone forms adducts with DNA bases that are excised by a repair activity from human cells that differs from an ethenoadenine glycosylase

Benzene is a ubitiquous human environment mental carcinogen. One of the major metabolites is hydroquinone, which is oxidized in vivo to give p-benzoquinone (p-BQ). Both metabolites are toxic to human cells. p-BQ reacts with DNA to form benzetheno adducts with deoxycytidine, deoxyadenosine, and deoxyguanosine. In this study we have synthesized the exocyclic compounds 3-hydroxy-3-N4-benzetheno-2'-deoxycytidine (p-BQ-dCyd) and 9-hydroxy-1,N6-benzetheno-2'-deoxyadenosine (p-BQ-dAdo), respectively, by reacting deoxycytidine and deoxyadenosine with p-BQ. These were converted to the phosphoamidites, which were then used to prepare site-specific oligonucleotides with either the p-BQ-dCyd or p-BQ-dAdo adduct (pbqC or pbqA in sequences) at two different defined positions. These oligonucleotides were efficiently nicked 5' to the adduct by partially purified HeLa cell extracts--the pbqC-containing oligomer more rapidly than the pbqA-containing oligomer. In contrast to the enzyme binding to derivatives produced by the vinyl chloride metabolite chloroacetaldehyde, the oligonucleotides up to 60-mer containing p-BQ adducts did not bind measurably to the same enzyme preparation in a gel retardation assay. Furthermore, there was no competition for the binding observed between oligonucleotides containing 1,N6-etheno A deoxyadenosine (1,N6-etheno-dAdo; epsilon A in sequences) and these oligomers containing either of the p-BQ adducts, even at 120-fold excess. When highly purified fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC) enzyme fractions were obtained, there appeared to be two closely eluting nicking activities. One of these enzymes bound and cleaved the epsilon A-containing deoxyoligonucleotide. The other enzyme cleaved the pbqA- and pbqC-containing deoxyoligonucleotides. One additional unexpected fact was that bulk p-BQ-treated salmon sperm DNA did compete effectively with the epsilon A-containing oligonucleotide for protein binding. This raises the possibility that such DNA contains other, as-yet-uncharacterized adducts that are recognized by the same enzyme that recognizes the etheno adducts. In summary, we describe a previously undescribed human DNA repair activity, possibly a glycosylase, that excises from DNA pbqC and pbqA, exocyclic adducts resulting from reaction of deoxycytidine and deoxyadenosine with the benzene metabolite, p-BQ. This glycosylase activity is not identical to the one previously reported from this laboratory as excising the four etheno bases from DNA.

Detection of 3'-hydroxy-1,N6-benzetheno-2'-deoxyadenosine 3'-phosphate by 32P postlabeling of DNA reacted with p-benzoquinone

2'-Deoxyadenosine 3'-phosphate was reacted with a mixture of p-benzoquinone (p-BQ) and hydroquinone in aqueous medium at pH 6, and the main product was isolated and characterized by 1H NMR spectroscopy, liquid secondary ion mass spectroscopy (LSIMS), and high-resolution direct chemical ionization mass spectroscopy (HRDCIMS). The structure of this covalent adduct was assigned as 3'-hydroxy-1,N6-benzetheno-2'-deoxyadenosine 3'-phosphate. Reaction of DNA with p-BQ produced three major adducts as detected by 32P postlabeling; the relative abundance was 1.1%, 22.4%, and 72.4%. Cochromatography of 32P-postlabeled 3'-hydroxy-1,N6-benzetheno-2'-deoxyadenosine 3',5'-bisphosphate with the 32P-postlabeled DNA-p-BQ reaction mixture established this compound, adduct 3, as the second most abundant product of the reaction.

Chemical synthesis and detection of the cross-link 1-[N3-(2'-deoxycytidyl)]-2-[N1-(2'-deoxyguanosinyl)]ethane in DNA reacted with 1-(2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea

We have synthesized 1-[N3-(2'-deoxycytidyl)]-2-[N1-(2'-deoxyguanosinyl)]ethane and confirmed its structure by ultraviolet and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Treatment of calf thymus DNA with [3H](2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea resulted in the formation of at least 13 DNA alkylation products that were separated by HPLC. 1-[N3-(2'-Deoxycytidyl)]-2-[N1-(2'-deoxyguanosinyl)]ethane was a minor product, accounting for 3.4% of the total DNA alkylation. The DNA cross-link 1,2-di-N7-guanylethane was formed to a similar extent (3.2%). Other minor alkylation products were O6-(2-hydroxyethyl)deoxyguanosine (1.5%) and N1-(2-hydroxyethyl)deoxyguanosine (3.8%). The principal alkylation products formed by 1-(2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea (CNU) treatment of DNA were N7-(2-hydroxyethyl)guanine (36.4%), N7-(2-chloroethyl)guanine (14.6%), and phosphotriesters (26.1%). The development of analytical procedures to measure DNA alkylation products after treatment with CNU will allow us to investigate factors influencing their formation and repair.

Detection of (3'-hydroxy)-3,N4-benzetheno-2'-deoxycytidine-3'-phosphate by 32P-postlabeling of DNA reacted with p-benzoquinone

Cytidine-3'-phosphate was reacted with p-benzoquinone under neutral aqueous conditions, and the fluorescent product formed was isolated and characterized. The structure of the covalent adduct was identified as (3'-hydroxy)-3,N4-benzetheno-cytidine-3'-phosphate by high-resolution MS and 1H NMR spectroscopy. A similar product was isolated from the reaction of 2'-deoxycytidine-3'-phosphate with a hydroquinone-p-benzoquinone mixture. 32P-Postlabeling of calf thymus DNA reacted with p-benzoquinone detected several adducts, the principal adduct being (3'-hydroxy)-3,N4-benzetheno-2'-deoxycytidine-3'-phosphate. Our studies demonstrate that the reaction of DNA with p-benzoquinone in vitro leads to multiple DNA adducts. 32P-Postlabeling may allow detection of benzene-DNA adducts in vivo.

Microsomal and peroxidase activation of 4-hydroxy-tamoxifen to form DNA adducts: comparison with DNA adducts formed in Sprague-Dawley rats treated with tamoxifen

Using rat liver microsomal preparations and peroxidase enzymes, we have investigated the formation of DNA adducts by the antiestrogen compound tamoxifen (TAM) and its metabolite 4-hydroxy-tamoxifen (4-OH-TAM). When reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) was used as a cofactor in microsomal activation of either 4-OH-TAM or TAM, one DNA adduct and relative DNA adduct levels of 4.6 and 3.1 x 10(-8), respectively were detected by 32P-postlabeling. The DNA adduct produced by microsomal activation of 4-OH-TAM and TAM was the same. With cumene hydroperoxide (CuOOH) as the cofactor for the microsomal activation of either 4-OH-TAM or TAM, three to six DNA adducts were produced; the relative adduct levels were 8.0 and 20.6 x 10(-8), respectively. Comparison of the DNA adduct patterns produced by 4-OH-TAM and TAM showed that they were distinct. However one of the DNA adducts (a) produced by microsomal activation of 4-OH-TAM using CuOOH was the same as adduct a produced by microsomal activation of 4-OH-TAM with NADPH. Activation of 4-OH-TAM with horseradish peroxidase resulted in the formation of a single DNA adduct and a relative adduct level of 20.7 x 10(-8). Rechromatography analysis of this DNA adduct showed that it was identical to that produced by microsomal activation of 4-OH-TAM with NADPH and one of the adducts produced using CuOOH as the cofactor. Ten DNA adducts and a relative adduct level of 15.3 x 10(-8) were detected in the liver of female Sprague-Dawley rats treated daily with 20 mg/kg of TAM for 7 days. The DNA adduct pattern in the liver of the treated animals was similar to that produced by microsomal activation of TAM using CuOOH as the co-factor. The principal DNA adduct (no. 6) formed in the livers of rats treated with TAM was the same as the principal DNA adduct formed following microsomal activation of TAM using CuOOH as a cofactor. The DNA adduct formed following microsomal activation of either TAM or 4-OH-TAM using NADPH was also present as one of the adducts (1) formed in vivo following TAM treatment. These studies demonstrate that 4-OH-TAM can be activated to form DNA adducts and that it contributes to the formation of DNA adducts in the liver of rats treated with TAM.

Oxidation of eugenol to form DNA adducts and 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine: role of quinone methide derivative in DNA adduct formation

We have investigated the activation of eugenol to form DNA adducts and oxidative base damage. Treatment of myeloperoxidase containing HL-60 cells with eugenol, produced a dose-dependent formation of three DNA adducts as detected with P1-enhanced 32P-post-labeling. Incubation of HL-60 cells with the combination of 100 microM eugenol and 100 microM H2O2 potentiated the levels of DNA adduct in HL-60 cells by 14-fold, which suggests peroxidase activation in adduct formation. In vitro activation of eugenol with either horseradish peroxidase or myeloperoxidase and H2O2 produced three DNA adducts that were inhibited by the addition of either ascorbic acid or glutathione, by 66 and 90%, respectively. The DNA adducts formed in HL-60 cells treated with eugenol were the same as those formed by in vitro peroxidase activation. In addition to adduct formation, peroxidase activation of eugenol produced a 2- to 3-fold increase in the level of oxidative base damage. Eugenol quinone methide was prepared by Ag(I)oxide oxidation of eugenol. Peroxidase activation of eugenol gave a product that had the same UV spectrum as eugenol quinone methide, which suggests that it was one of the products. Reaction of eugenol quinone methide with either DNA or deoxyguanosine-3'-phosphate produced two principal adducts (2 and 4). When DNA adduct 2 formed by incubation of eugenol quinone methide with deoxyguanosine-3'-phosphate was compared with DNA 2 adduct formed in HL-60 cells treated with eugenol results demonstrated that they were the same. This suggests that eugenol quinone methide is one of the reactive intermediates leading to DNA adduct formation in cells. Activation of eugenol with 10 microM copper sulfate resulted in the production of one principal (2) and several minor adducts. DNA adduct 2 formed by activation of eugenol with copper sulfate was the same as DNA adduct 2 formed by either peroxidase activation of eugenol or by reactions with eugenol quinone methide, which indicates that the reactive intermediates generated by these activation systems were similar. Copper sulfate produced a 95-fold increase in the level of oxidative base damage, which was significantly inhibited by the addition of either bathocuproinedisulphonic acid or catalase. The formation of oxidative base damage was consistent with a Fenton reaction mechanism. Our results demonstrate that eugenol can be activated to form both DNA adducts and oxidative base damage. We propose that the formation of this DNA damage may contribute to the observed toxic properties of eugenol.

Antitumor effects of specific telomerase inhibitor GRN163 in human glioblastoma xenografts

Telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein complex that elongates telomeric DNA and appears to play an important role in cellular immortalization of cancers. Because telomerase is expressed in the vast majority of malignant gliomas but not in normal brain tissues, it is a logical target for gliomaspecific therapy. The telomerase inhibitor GRN163, a 13-mer oligonucleotide N3'-->P5' thio-phosphoramidate (Geron Corporation, Menlo Park, Calif.), is complementary to the template region of the human telomerase RNA subunit hTR. When athymic mice bearing U-251 MG human brain tumor xenografts in their flanks were treated intratumorally with GRN163, a significant growth delay in tumor size was observed (P < 0.01 in all groups) as compared to the tumor size in mice receiving a mismatched oligonucleotide or the carrier alone. We also investigated biodistribution of the drug in vivo in an intracerebral rat brain-tumor model. Fluorescein-labeled GRN163 was loaded into an osmotic minipump and infused directly into U-251 MG brain tumors over 7 days. Examination of the brains revealed that GRN163 was present in tumor cells at all time points studied. When GRN163 was infused into intracerebral U-251 MG tumors shortly after their implantation, it prevented their establishment and growth. Lastly, when rats with larger intracerebral tumors were treated with the inhibitor, GRN163 increased animal survival times. Our results demonstrate that the antitelomerase agent GRN163 inhibits growth of glioblastoma in vivo, exhibits favorable intracerebral tumor uptake properties, and prevents the growth of intracerebral tumors. These findings support further development of this compound as a potential anticancer agent.

Activation of 4-hydroxytamoxifen and the tamoxifen derivative metabolite E by uterine peroxidase to form DNA adducts: comparison with DNA adducts formed in the uterus of Sprague-Dawley rats treated with tamoxifen

Daily intraperitoneal treatment of female Sprague-Dawley rats with either 5, 10 or 20 mg/kg tamoxifen (TAM) for 1 week increased the level of peroxidase activity in the uterus 2- to 10-fold compared to the control level. Using uterine extracts prepared from control and TAM treated animals, we investigated the activation of 4-hydroxytamoxifen (4-HO-TAM) and (E,Z)-1,2-diphenyl-1-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-but-1-ene (cis/trans-metabolite E) to form DNA adducts. Activation of 4-HO-TAM by uterine extracts prepared from either control or TAM-treated rats produced one major (a) and two minor DNA (b and c) adducts. A similar activation of cis/trans-metabolite E produced two adducts (d and e). There was good correlation between levels of uterine peroxidase activity and levels of DNA adducts formed by 4-HO-TAM and cis/trans-metabolite E. Activation of 4-HO-TAM and cis/trans-metabolite E with horseradish peroxidase (HRP) produced the same adducts as observed by activation with uterine extract. Treatment of Sprague-Dawley rats with 5 and 10 mg/kg for 7 days produced eleven DNA adducts in the liver with no adducts detected in the uterus. However, treatment of rats with 20 mg/kg of TAM for 7 days produced the same adduct pattern in the liver and also one major adduct (1) in the uterus with a relative adduct level of 6.4 - 4.1 x 10(-9). Tamoxifen-DNA adduct 1 detected both in the liver and in the uterus of treated rats was similar to adducts produced by activation of 4-HO-TAM with either uterine extract or HRP. The results of these studies suggest a general model whereby the tamoxifen metabolite 4-HO-TAM is further activated in the uterus by peroxidase enzymes to form DNA adducts.

O6-substituted-2'-deoxyguanosine-3'-phosphate adducts detected by 32P post-labeling of styrene oxide treated DNA

32P post-labeling of DNA reacted with styrene oxide resulted in the detection of six adducts. In order to determine which of these corresponded to modification at the O6 position of guanine, O6-substituted styrene oxide-deoxyguanosine-3'-monophosphate derivatives were synthesized. The two synthetic isomers were purified by HPLC and the structures were confirmed by mass spectrometry and 1H NMR. 32P post-labeling and co-chromatography with the DNA-styrene-7,8-oxide reaction products resulted in the assignment of adduct number 4 as O6-(2-hydroxy-2-phenylethyl)-2'--deoxyguanosine-3',5'-bisphosphate and adduct number 5 as O6-(2-hydroxy-1-phenylethyl)-2'-deoxyguanosine-3',5'-bisphosphate.

32P-post-labeling detection of DNA adducts in mononuclear cells of workers occupationally exposed to styrene

32P-Post-labeling was used to analyze for the presence of DNA adducts in 47 workers exposed to styrene in a boat manufacturing facility. Individual airborne exposures measured several times over the course of 1 year ranged from 1 to 235 mg/m3 with a mean value of 65.6 mg/m3. Two adducts were detected in the DNA of mononuclear cells of these workers. The following levels of adducts were detected: adduct 1, range 0.6-102 x 10(-8) (mean 15.8 x 10(-8); adduct 2, range 0.1-70.9 x 10(-8) (mean 14.2 x 10(-8). Significant linear relationships were found between styrene exposure and both DNA adducts (adduct 2, r = 0.330, P = 0.012; adduct 1, r = 0.244, P = 0.049). Co-chromatography experiments identified DNA adduct 1 in the exposed samples as N2-(2-hydroxy-1-phenylethyl)-2'-deoxyguanosine-3',5'-bisphosphate. DNA adduct 2 remains unidentified. No significant linear relationships were observed between the level of DNA adducts and sister chromatid exchanges, possibly because of the poor precision of the 32P-post-labeling assay (the estimated coefficients of variation for adducts 1 and 2 were 2.54 and 1.96, respectively). These results demonstrate that occupational exposure to styrene results in the formation of DNA adducts in human mononuclear cells.

Allosteric inhibitors of telomerase: oligonucleotide N3'-->P5' phosphoramidates

Telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein responsible for maintaining telomeres in nearly all eukaryotic cells. The enzyme is able to utilize a short segment of its RNA subunit as the template for the reverse transcription of d(TTAGGG) repeats onto the ends of human chromosomes. Transfection with telomerase was shown to confer immortality on several types of human cells. Moreover, telomerase activation appears to be one of the key events required for malignant transformation of normal cells. Inhibition of telomerase activity in transformed cells results in the cessation of cell proliferation in cultures and provides the rationale for the selection of telomerase as a target for anticancer therapy. Using oligonucleotide N3'-->P5' phosphoramidates (NPs) we have identified a region of the human telomerase RNA subunit (hTR) approximately 100 nt downstream from the template region whose structural integrity appears crucial for telomerase enzymatic activity. The oligonucleotides targeted to this segment of hTR are potent and specific inhibitors of telomerase activity in biochemical assays. Mutant telomerase, in which 3 nt of hTR were not complementary to a 15 nt NP, was found to be refractory to inhibition by that oligonucleotide. We also demonstrated that the binding of NP, oligonucleotides to this hTR allosteric site results in a marked decrease in the affinity of a telomerase substrate (single-stranded DNA primer) for the enzyme.

Oligonucleotide N3' --> P5' thio-phosphoramidate telomerase template antagonists as potential anticancer agents

Human telomerase is a reverse transcriptase that is expressed in essentially all cancer cells, but not in the vast majority of normal somatic cells. Therefore, the specific inhibition of telomerase activity in tumors might have significant beneficial therapeutic effects. We have designed and evaluated oligonucleotide N3' --> P5' thio-phosphoramidates as telomerase template antagonists. In biochemical cell-free assays 11-13-mer thio-phosphoramidate oligonucleotides demonstrated sequence specific and dose dependent inhibition of telomerase with pico-molar IC50 values. Optimization of the oligonucleotide sequence and length resulted in the identification of a 13-mer-oligonucleotide thio-phosphoramidate GRN163 as a drug development candidate. In cell cultures GRN163 was able to inhibit telomerase activity in the absence of cationic lipid with approximately 1 microM IC50 values. Telomerase inhibition by GRN163 produced gradual telomere shortening, followed by cellular senescence and/or apoptosis of cancer derived cell lines.

Investigation of the DNA adducts formed in B6C3F1 mice treated with benzene: implications for molecular dosimetry

We have investigated the formation of DNA adducts in the bone marrow and white blood cells of male B6C3F1 mice treated with benzene using P1-enhanced 32P-postlabeling. No adducts were detected in the bone marrow of controls or mice treated with various doses of benzene once a day. After twice-daily treatment for 1 to 7 days with benzene, 440 mg/kg, one major (no. 1) and up to two minor DNA adducts were detected in both the bone marrow and white blood cells. The relative adduct levels in these cells ranged from 0.06 to 1.46 x 10(-7). a significant correlation (r2 = 0.95) between levels of adducts in bone marrow and white blood cells was observed. After a 7-day treatment with benzene, 440 mg/kg twice a day, the number of cells per femur decreased from 1.6 x 10(7) to 0.85 x 10(7), indicating myelotoxicity. In contrast, administration of benzene once a day produced only a small decrease in bone marrow cellularity. The observed induction of toxicity in bone marrow was paralleled by formation of DNA adducts. In vitro treatment of bone marrow with hydroquinone (HQ) for 24 hr produced the same DNA adducts as found after treatment of mice with benzene, suggesting that HQ is the principal metabolite of benzene leading to DNA adduct formation in vivo. Using P-postlabeling the principal DNA adduct formed in vivo was compared with N2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2'-deoxyguanosine-3'-phosphate. The results of this comparison demonstrated that the DNA adduct formed in vivo co-chromatographs with N2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2'-deoxyguanosine-3'-phosphate. These studies indicate that metabolic activation of benzene leads to the formation of DNA adducts in bone marrow and white blood cells and suggest that measurement of DNA adducts in white blood cells may be an indicator of biological effect following benzene exposure.

Peroxidative activation of o-phenylhydroquinone leads to the formation of DNA adducts in HL-60 cells

Using 32P-postlabeling we studied DNA adduct formation in HL-60 cells treated with the o-phenylphenol metabolites o-phenylhydroquinone (o-PHQ) and o-phenylbenzoquinone (o-PBQ). Treatment with 25-500 microM o-PHQ for 8 h produced one principal and three minor adducts with a relative distribution of 80, 10, 6 and 4%. The relative adduct levels from these treatments were 0.26-2.31 adducts/10(7) nucleotides. Treatment with 25-250 microM o-PBQ for 2 h resulted in a similar level of DNA modification and adduct distribution. Reaction of purified calf thymus DNA with o-PBQ produced one DNA adduct, which did not correspond to the major adduct produced in HL-60 cells. These results show that o-PHQ and o-PBQ can form DNA adducts. Peroxidase activation of o-phenylphenol may therefore play a role in the carcinogenic effect of this compound.

Synthesis of N2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2'-deoxyguanosine 3'-phosphate: comparison by 32P-postlabeling with the DNA adduct formed in HL-60 cells treated with hydroquinone

A new adduct has been isolated from the reaction of guanosine 3'-phosphate and p-benzoquinone. The structure of this adduct has been determined as N2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-guanosine 3'-phosphate. 32P-Postlabeling showed that this adduct is similar to the DNA adduct formed in HL-60 cells treated with hydroquinone. For comparison with the corresponding deoxyribonucleotide, a synthetic procedure was developed for the preparation of N2-substituted derivatives of 2'-deoxyguanosine 3'-phosphate. 2-Bromo-2'-deoxyinosine 3'-phosphate was synthesized with a combination of synthetic and enzymatic methods. Reaction of 2-bromo-2'-deoxyinosine 3'-phosphate with 4-hydroxyaniline gave N2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2'-deoxyguanosine 3'-phosphate. Using 32P-postlabeling, we compared this product with the DNA adduct produced in HL-60 cells treated with hydroquinone. The results of these studies suggest that the DNA adduct formed in HL-60 cells treated with hydroquinone corresponds to N2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2'-deoxyguanosine 3'-phosphate.

Investigation of benzene-DNA adducts and their detection in human bone marrow

We have examined DNA adduct formation in HL-60 cells and human bone marrow treated with either hydroquinone or p-benzoquinone and have found that these treatments produce the same DNA adduct in both cell types. The DNA adduct level from these treatments varied from 0.05 to 7.5 adducts per 10(7) nucleotides as a function of treatment time and concentration for both compounds. Reaction of calf thymus DNA with p-benzoquinone produced three adducts as detected by 32P-postlabeling. These adducts have been identified as (3'-hydroxy)-3,N4-benzetheno-2'-deoxycytidine-3'-phosphate; (3'-hydroxy)-1,N6-benzetheno-2'-deoxyadenosine-3'-phosphate; and (3'-hydroxy)-1,N2-benzetheno-2'-deoxyguanosine-3'-phosphate. The DNA adduct formed in HL-60 cells did not correspond to any of the principal adducts formed in DNA reacted with p-benzoquinone, suggesting that cellular environment modifies DNA adduct production by p-benzoquinone. These studies demonstrate that DNA adduct formation occurs in human bone marrow treated with benzene metabolites and suggest that P1-enhanced 32P-postlabeling may be used to detect DNA adducts resulting from benzene exposure.