Pinpointing pigs: performance and challenges of an ultra-wideband real-time location system for tracking growing-finishing pigs under practical conditions

Real-Time Location Systems (RTLSs) are promising precision livestock farming tools and have been employed in behavioural studies across various farm animal species. However, their application in research with fattening pigs is so far unexplored. The implementation of these systems has great potential to gain insight into pigs' spatial behaviour such as the use of functional areas and pigs' proximity to each other as indicators for social relationships. The aim of this study was therefore to validate the accuracy, precision, and data quality of the commercial Noldus Information Technology BV TrackLab system. We conducted different measurement sets: first, we performed static measurements in 12 pens at four different locations in each pen at three heights each using a single ultra-wideband tag (UWB). We recorded unfiltered x- and y-coordinates at 1 Hz. We repeated these measurements with six tags aligned in a 2 × 3 grid with varied spacing to test interference between the tags. We also tested dynamic performance by moving the tags along the centre line of the pens. Finally, we measured the data quality with 55 growing pigs in six pens, including the identification of location 'jumps' from the inside to the outside of the pen. Each pen housed ten animals fitted with a UWB tag attached to their farm ear tag. We collected data for 10 days and analysed seven 24-h periods of raw and filtered data. The mean accuracy of the RTLS measurements was 0.53 m (precision: 0.14 m) for single and 0.46 m (precision: 0.07 m) for grouped tags. Accuracy improved with increasing measurement height for single tags but less clearly for grouped tags (P [height single] = 0.01; P [height grouped] = 0.22). When tags were fitted to animals, 63.3% of the filtered data was lost and 21.8% of the filtered location estimates were outside the pens. Altogether, the TrackLab system was capable of fairly accurate and precise assignment of the functional areas where individual animals were located, but was insufficient for the analysis of social relationships. Furthermore, the frequent occurrence of gaps in signal transmission and the overall high data loss rates presented significant limitations. Additionally, the challenging hardware requirements for attaching sensors to the animals underline the need for further technological advances in RTLS for the application with growing-finishing pigs.

Effects of small milking stalls on stress responses in dairy cows during milking in group milking parlors

Milking stall dimensions have not been adapted to the increase in cow body size caused by selection for better milking performance over the past decades. Improper milking stall dimensions might limit cow comfort, could lead to stress responses during milking and thus could negatively affect cow welfare. A crossover study was conducted in an experimental milking parlor that was converted from a herringbone (HB) to a side-by-side (SBS) parlor. The milking stall dimensions were modified in length and width and for HB also in depth (perpendicular distance between rump rail and breast rail). The stall dimensions applied during the experiments ranged from much smaller than common in European dairy farming to much larger. Treatments were applied for 2 wk per milking parlor type. In each milking parlor type, a total of 30 cows, kept in 2 groups were observed during milking for behavioral and physiological stress responses and for milking performance. In addition, milk cortisol levels and somatic cell counts were measured at the end of the 2-wk period. Outcome variables were selected based on a principal component analysis and analyzed using mixed effects models reflecting the experimental design. The results showed that the first cow per milking batch required more time (on average >40 s) to enter very small HB stalls than to enter small, large and very large stalls (<30 s). Also, cows yielded more milk per milking in very small and very large HB stalls than in the small and large milking stall dimensions [very small: 15.8 kg; 95% confidence interval (CI), 14.2-17.4 kg); small: 14.3 kg (95% CI, 12.8-15.9 kg); large: 14.6 kg (95% CI, 13.1-16.1 kg); very large: 16.1 kg (95% CI, 14.6-17.6 kg)]. The other behavioral, physiological and milk flow parameters as well as udder health were not affected by stall dimensions. For the SBS parlor, effects of milking stall dimensions were not detectable in any of the parameters. Despite the strong avoidance behavior to enter the milking parlor (measured as latency), no acute stress responses were found during milking. However, the study cannot exclude long-term effects of narrow stall dimensions on stress levels and possibly udder health, which should be investigated in future studies.

Body size in relation to cubicle dimensions affects lying behavior and joint lesions in dairy cows

Adequate cubicle dimensions are important for dairy cows to allow for species-appropriate lying behavior. Even though cow body size has increased in the last 2 decades, the cubicle dimensions of housing systems built many years ago have not been adjusted on most farms. Therefore, cows may be impaired in their lying behaviors, and thus the present study aimed to determine the influence of the ratio of body size to cubicle dimension on lying behavior and joint lesions. We investigated the lying behavior of 144 cows with withers heights of 140 to 163 cm on 8 Swiss dairy farms. Among the farms, the cubicle bed length varied from 187 to 200 cm and lunge space length varied from 47 to 202 cm. Specific behaviors of lying down and standing up movements, as well as lying positions, were observed on 3 d per farm. As outcome variables, the occurrences of these behaviors were calculated as proportions in relation to the respective total number of observations per cow. In addition, the presence of joint lesions was scored once. Data of the individual cows were analyzed in relation to the given cubicle dimensions on the farms by mixed-effects models. The bed length ratio [bed length (cm) on the farm/withers height (cm) of the observed cow] and the lunge space ratio [lunge space length (cm) on the farm/withers height (cm) of the observed cow] were used as explanatory variables. An increase in the bed length ratio was associated with decreased proportions of lying down movements with (1) repeated head pendulum movements, (2) repeated stepping with front legs, and (3) hitting against cubicle elements; decreased proportions of standing up movements with (1) shifting backward, (2) hesitant head lunge movements, and (3) hitting against cubicle elements; and an increased proportion of lying positions without physical contact with cubicle elements. An increase in the lunge space ratio was associated with a decreased proportion of standing up movements with sideways directed head lunge movements. Furthermore, an increase in the bed length ratio decreased the proportion of cows with tarsal joint lesions. To summarize, the lying behavior of large-framed cows was clearly modified given the cubicle dimensions in use on the study farms. In view of the consistency of the obtained results, we recommend adjusting the dimensions of cubicles so that they are suitable for cows whose body size meets the breeding goals of the farm.

Einfluss von gummimodifizierten Spaltenböden auf die Klauengesundheit von Mastbullen

Gegenstand und Ziel: Die Auswirkung eines gummimodifizierten Vollspaltenbodens (Produktname Lospa) auf die Klauengesundheit und -beschaffenheit von Maststieren wurde im Rahmen eines Prüfund Bewilligungsverfahren für serienmäßig hergestellte Stalleinrichtungen beurteilt. Drei Haltungssysteme standen zum Vergleich: Buchten mit gummimodifizierten Spaltenböden (Lospa-Einflächenbuchten), Zweiflächenbuchten mit eingestreuter Liegefläche und herkömmliche Betonvollspaltenbuchten. Material und Methode: Die Untersuchung umfasste einerseits Klauen von Mastbullen (n = 55), die in einem Versuchsbetrieb nebeneinander in den drei Haltungssystemen gehalten wurden, und andererseits Klauen von Mastbullen (n = 111) aus 12 Praxisbetrieben, in denen diese Haltungssysteme eingerichtet waren. Alle Tiere wurden im Alter von ca. vier Monaten eingestallt und im Alter von 13 bis 15 Monaten geschlachtet (Schlachtgewicht ca. 540 kg LG). Bei allen Klauen erfolgte während der Mast mehrmals eine Beurteilung der äußerlich sichtbaren Horndefekte und -veränderungen, des Wachstums und der Abnutzung des Wandhorns, dessen Härte und Wassergehalt sowie der Klauenform (Länge, Breite, Diagonallänge und Winkel). Nach der Schlachtung wurden die Schnitt- und die Innenfläche des Klauenschuhs sowie die Lederhaut und die tiefer liegenden Strukturen der Klaue untersucht. Ergebnisse: Die Klauen der Maststiere zeigten, dass in den Lospa-Einflächenbuchten und in den eingestreuten Zweiflächenbuchten kein ausreichender Klauenabrieb erfolgte. Folge davon war in diesen zwei Haltungssystemen das häufigere Auftreten sowohl von überwachsenem, zerklüftetem und kraterbildendem Ballen- und Sohlenhorn wie von überlangen Klauen mit überwachsenen Tragrändern. Obwohl die vorgefundenen Klauenveränderungen teilweise recht ausgeprägt waren, wurden bei der Untersuchung der Schlachtklauen nach dem Ausschuhen in keinem Fall Läsionen an der Lederhaut oder in den übrigen Weichteilen festgestellt. Schlussfolgerungen und klinische Relevanz: Die Ergebnisse zum Zustand der Klauen zeigten, dass der Klauenabrieb in den Lospa-Einflächenbuchten ungenügend ist. Allerdings beschränkten sich die Befunde auf äußerlich sichtbare Veränderungen des Klauenschuhs. Daher kann davon ausgegangen werden, dass die beobachteten Hornveränderungen nicht zu Schmerzen führen. Gummimodifizierte Einflächenbuchten können somit ein mögliches Haltungssystem in der Rindermast darstellen. Schwerwiegendere Veränderungen an den Klauen sind jedoch zu erwarten, wenn die Tiere ein höheres Schlachtgewicht erreichen. Es ist daher zu empfehlen, die Haltungsdauer von Mastbullen in Lospa-Einflächenbuchten auf ein Alter von bis zu 15 Monaten zu beschränken.

Short communication: Detection of lameness in dairy cows using a grooming device

Lameness in dairy cattle is a common welfare problem with significant economic implications. All too often, appropriate treatment is delayed or neglected due to insufficient detection of lame cows. Brush usage is considered a low-resilience activity; that is, one that typically decreases when energy resources are limited or when the cost involved in the activity increases, such as during sickness and stress. The aim of this study was to determine the association between brush usage and different degrees of lameness. Locomotion scores of 209 lactating Holstein dairy cows were collected individually once a week for 14 consecutive weeks, using a 5-point visual assessment scoring system (1 = nonlame, 2 = uneven gait, 3 = mild lameness, 4 = lameness, 5 = severe lameness). Daily brush usage was collected automatically from 3 cowsheds of similar size and structure located on a commercial dairy farm. In each of the 3 cowsheds, 2 brushes were installed, one next to the feed bunk, and the other away from the feed bunk (on the opposite side of the cowshed). Linear and generalized linear mixed-effects models were used to evaluate the association between locomotion scores and daily measures of brush usage. We found a significant interaction between locomotion score and brush location (near to/distant from feed bunk) on the daily proportion of cows using the brush at least once and on daily duration of brush usage. Specifically, we showed that lame and severely lame cows did not use brushes that were installed away from the feed bunk but continued to use brushes that were installed next to the feed bunk. Brush usage by cows with uneven gait (locomotion score 2) or with mild lameness (locomotion score 3) did not differ from that of nonlame cows (locomotion score 1). The results of this study suggest that monitoring of daily usage of brushes located away from the feed bunk could be a useful method for detecting lameness and severe lameness in dairy cows. However, the use of this method to detect mild lameness or cases of abnormal gait is, at this stage, less promising.

Effects of milking frequency in automatic milking systems on salivary cortisol, immunoglobulin A, somatic cell count and melatonin

INTRODUCTION

In barns with an automatic milking system (AMS), both the milking frequency and the number of nighttime milkings vary between cows. A low milking frequency might indicate problems in gaining access to the milking unit. Also, nighttime lighting in the waiting area of the AMS and in the milking unit increases exposure to light at night and could suppress nocturnal melatonin synthesis. These effects could result in increased stress, suppressed immune response, and poor udder health. A total of 125 cows (14-16/farm) on 8 farms with AMS were selected based on their average milking frequency. Eight to 10 saliva samples per cow were taken over the course of 4 days, and cortisol, IgA and melatonin concentrations were determined. Somatic cell counts (SCC) were determined in milk samples. Milking frequency had no significant relationship with mean cortisol and IgA levels, but a higher milking frequency tended to be associated with lower SCC levels. Nocturnal melatonin levels tended to be negatively associated with the number of nighttime milkings. In conclusion, no indication of increased stress or reduced immune defense was found in relation to milking frequency on farms with an AMS.

Influence of weaning method on health status and rumen development in dairy calves

In the artificial rearing of dairy calves, the same feeding plan is applied to all animals during the milk-feeding period, with individual differences attributable to development or health status rarely considered. The aim of this study was 1) to analyze whether the parameters of feeding behavior automatically recorded by a feeding computer and weight gain are suitable for predicting the health status and rumen development of male dairy calves, and 2) to compare a conventional weaning method (end of milk provision at 12 wk of age, n = 23 calves) with a concentrate-dependent weaning method (with reduction in the milk amount depending on the consumption of concentrate, n = 24). The health status of each animal was evaluated daily by a scoring list (health score), and body temperature was measured automatically during each milk intake. In addition, the number of veterinary treatments per calf was recorded. Rumen development was assessed by measuring rumen papillae in 8 rumen areas after slaughter (n = 24, half of each treatment group). During the milk-feeding period, body temperature was elevated (>/=39.5 degrees C) on 40.8 and 43.2% of all days for calves on the concentrate-dependent weaning method and the conventional weaning method, respectively. Hay and concentrate intake (but not milk intake) and weight gain were clearly affected by health status. In addition, health score and the probability of being treated by a veterinarian were significantly related to decreases in concentrate consumption. During the milk-feeding period, increased body temperature, an increased number of veterinary treatments, and decreases in milk consumption were all associated with reduced weight gain. Calves on the concentrate-dependent weaning method were weaned at an average age of 76 d, which was significantly shorter than the age at the end of milk provision for conventionally fed calves (84 d). Weight gain and health status did not differ between treatment groups. Weight gain was positively associated with papillae length. A treatment effect on rumen development could not be found. We conclude that the concentrate-dependent weaning method allows a faster physiological development without any negative impact on rumen development, weight gain, or health status; we therefore recommend its use in practice.

[Frequency of diseases and injuries in the Swiss horse population]

Through a written questionnaire, which was sent to a representatively distributed and randomly selected sample of Swiss horse owners, data of 2912 horses and ponies were acquired to extrapolate prevalence data of health disorders. General questions about the horse and associated factors of housing and use, as well as questions about the current health status and the occurrence of diseases and injuries had been asked. 718 horses (24.7% of the sample) had been examined by a veterinarian within the 12 months prior to the survey. Orthopaedic and traumatic disorders (41.5%) had the largest proportion, followed by gastrointestinal--(27.1%) and respiratory (14.0%) diseases. Half of the lameness cases occurred as a direct consequence of a injury. The injuries were associated with pasture/paddock (38.1%), kicking and biting (21.6%), boxstall (7.8%), terrain and hacking (13.4%), training (3.5%), competition (3.5%), transportation (3.0%) or other circumstances (9.1%). A change in feeding management up to 4 weeks before development of a colic episode occurred in 26.5% of all colic cases. In 13.8% of all respiratory cases the same disease was diagnosed in other horses in the same barn. 8.1% of all cases had to be treated surgically, 6.7% required hospitalization for several days. Information about diagnostic or therapeutic procedures was related to specific disease categories. In 25.6% of all cases diagnosed by a veterinarian alternative therapeutic methods were used either in addition to traditional medicine or exclusively.

Bite and kick injuries in horses: prevalence, risk factors and prevention

REASON FOR PERFORMING STUDY

Studies on the prevalence and predisposing factors of bite and kick injuries in horses have not been reported in a population-based data sample.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the prevalence of bite and kick injuries in horses and associated risk factors in a representative sample of horses in Switzerland.

METHODS

A questionnaire on the incidence of disease and injury, which included the frequency of bite and kick injuries and their association with breed, housing, use and feeding regime, was sent to 2559 horse owners randomly selected throughout Switzerland.

RESULTS

The data of 2912 horses with 897 disorders diagnosed by a veterinarian were analysed. There were 231 injuries, 50 (21.6%) caused by a bite or kick from another horse; this number corresponded to 5.6% of all diseases and injuries and concerned only 1.7% of all the horses evaluated. Warmblood, Thoroughbred and Arabian horses had a 4.3 times higher risk of bite or kick injuries than horses of other breeds. Eighteen per cent of injuries were associated with a change in housing management and occurred regardless of whether horses were kept in groups permanently or sporadically.

CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE

A stable group hierarchy and a housing system that provides adequate space and is adapted to horse-specific behaviour are important factors in prevention and kick and bite injuries.

Comparison of Functional Aspects in Two Automatic Milking Systems and Auto-Tandem Milking Parlors

Milk yield, milking frequency, intermilking interval, teat-cup attachment success rate, and length of the milking procedure are important functional aspects of automatic milking systems (AMS). In this study, these variables were compared for 2 different models of AMS (AMS-1, with free cow traffic, and AMS-2, with selectively guided cow traffic) and auto-tandem milking parlors (ATM) on 4 farms each. Data on milking-stall visits and milkings of 20 cows were recorded on 3 successive days by means of video observations. Data were evaluated with mixed-effects models. Milk yield did not differ among the 3 milking systems. Milking frequency in the AMS was 2.47/d [95% confidence interval (CI) = (2.38, 2.56)], and was significantly higher than the 2 milkings/d in ATM. Milking frequency was lower for cows with a higher number of days in milk (DIM) in AMS-1 [change of -0.057/10 DIM, CI = (-0.070, -0.044)], but remained constant for cows with varying DIM in AMS-2 [change of -0.003/10 DIM, CI = (-0.034, 0.027)]. As a consequence, milking frequency was higher in early lactation [by 0.603, CI = (0.102, 1.103)] and lower in late lactation in AMS-1 than in AMS-2 [by -0.397, CI = (-0.785, -0.008)]. The intermilking interval showed the opposite pattern. Teat-cup attachment was more successful in AMS-1 than in AMS-2 (98.4 vs. 94.3% of the milkings), with some variation among farms (range: AMS-1 96.2 to 99.5%; AMS-2 91.5 to 96.1%). The length of the entire milking process did not differ among the milking systems [454 s, CI = (430, 478)], although the preparation phase was longer [changes in comparison with ATM: in AMS-1 by a factor of 2.90, CI = (2.30, 3.65), and in AMS-2 by 5.15, CI = (4.09, 6.48)] and the actual milking phase was shorter in both AMS-1 and AMS-2 than in ATM [changes in comparison with ATM: in AMS-1 by a factor of 0.76, CI = (0.62, 0.94), and in AMS-2 by 0.75, CI = (0.60, 0.93)]. The admission [changes in comparison with ATM: in AMS-1 by a factor of 2.56, CI = (1.55, 4.22), and in AMS-2 by 3.07, CI = (1.86, 5.08)] and preparation phases lasted longer in AMS-2 than in AMS-1, whereas the time required by the cows to leave the milking stall did not differ among the systems [changes in comparison with ATM: in AMS-1 by a factor of 0.89, CI = (0.55, 1.44), and in AMS-2 by 1.02, CI = (0.63, 1.66)]. In conclusion, different technical approaches to automatic milking led to differences in teat-cup attachment success rates, in the duration of several phases of the milking process, and in milking frequency. The capacity of an AMS could be further improved by shortening the preparation phase and reducing the proportion of failed milkings.

Assessing cubicle dimensions for finishing bulls based on animal behaviour and cleanliness

Finishing bulls need increasingly large cubicles throughout their growth, and optimal cubicle dimensions may differ from those used for dairy cows. The space requirements of finishing bulls was investigated by observing standing-up and lying-down behaviour, lying duration and number of lying bouts, as well as the cleanliness of cubicles and animals before and after increasing cubicle size at four different points in time. Lying area in the cubicles measured 120 × 70 cm at the start and 185 × 110 cm at the end of the finishing period (approx. at 160 and 550 kg, respectively). Twenty animals kept in four groups were observed at weights of approximately 220, 330, 380 and 500 kg before and after cubicle dimensions were increased. The proportion of standing-up events with more than one head lunge decreased with enlargement of the cubicles (P = 0·01). As cubicle size increased, bulls hit the partition rails less on standing up, except at 220 kg weight where the pattern was inverted (interaction: P = 0·001). Partitions were also hit less on lying down as cubicle size increased, except at 220 kg weight with an inverse pattern (interaction: P = 0·01). The number of exploratory head sweeps before lying down did not change with cubicle enlargement (P > 0·5). Bulls slipped more often with cubicle enlargement, except at 380 kg where the difference was inverted (interaction: P = 0·03). They never fell and never turned around in the cubicles. In general, both animals and cubicles were very clean. On average, lying duration decreased (P < 0·01) while the number of lying bouts tended to increase (P = 0·052) with enlargement of the cubicles but the absolute differences were small. Consequently at each point in time, the smaller cubicles still seemed to provide sufficient lying space for the bulls. If the impacts with the partitions were minor and did not represent a serious welfare concern, as suggested by qualitative observations, the cubicle dimensions used could be considered suitable for housing the type of finishing bulls used in this study.

Milk Cortisol Concentration in Automatic Milking Systems Compared with Auto-Tandem Milking Parlors

Milk cortisol concentration was determined under routine management conditions on 4 farms with an auto-tandem milking parlor and 8 farms with 1 of 2 automatic milking systems (AMS). One of the AMS was a partially forced (AMSp) system, and the other was a free cow traffic (AMSf) system. Milk samples were collected for all the cows on a given farm (20 to 54 cows) for at least 1 d. Behavioral observations were made during the milking process for a subset of 16 to 20 cows per farm. Milk cortisol concentration was evaluated by milking system, time of day, behavior during milking, daily milk yield, and somatic cell count using linear mixed-effects models. Milk cortisol did not differ between systems (AMSp: 1.15 +/- 0.07; AMSf: 1.02 +/- 0.12; auto-tandem parlor: 1.01 +/- 0.16 nmol/L). Cortisol concentrations were lower in evening than in morning milkings (1.01 +/- 0.12 vs. 1.24 +/- 0.13 nmol/L). The daily periodicity of cortisol concentration was characterized by an early morning peak and a late afternoon elevation in AMSp. A bimodal pattern was not evident in AMSf. Finally, milk cortisol decreased by a factor of 0.915 in milking parlors, by 0.998 in AMSp, and increased by a factor of 1.161 in AMSf for each unit of ln(somatic cell count/1,000). We conclude that milking cows in milking parlors or AMS does not result in relevant stress differences as measured by milk cortisol concentrations. The biological relevance of the difference regarding the daily periodicity of milk cortisol concentrations observed between the AMSp and AMSf needs further investigation.

Leg lesions and cleanliness of finishing bulls kept in housing systems with different lying area surfaces

The influence of the quality of different lying surfaces on lesions and swellings at the joints as well as on the cleanliness of finishing bulls throughout the fattening period was studied. On 17 farms (623 bulls), pens with fully slatted concrete floors (CONCRETE), with rubber coated slats (RUBBER), with cubicles (CUBICLES, provided with five different types of soft lying mat) and with a littered lying area (STRAW) were compared. Bulls kept on STRAW developed the smallest lesion scores at the joints. In CUBICLES, there was a huge variability in the lesion scores depending on the type of lying mat, ranging from values comparable to STRAW up to and greater than the values for CONCRETE. The highest lesion scores at the carpal joints were found on CONCRETE, with intermediate values on RUBBER and in CUBICLES. At the tarsal joints, lesion scores were similar on CONCRETE and RUBBER and in the same range or worse on most mats in the CUBICLES. Swelling scores were highest on CONCRETE and intermediate on RUBBER and in CUBICLES compared to STRAW. In general, there was a steady increase in the lesion scores of the leg joints throughout the fattening period on CONCRETE, RUBBER and STRAW, whereas on some of the mats in CUBICLES these scores were at a high level from early on in the fattening period. Animals in all the housing systems were clean over the whole fattening period. Littering the lying area in CUBICLES affected neither the lesion scores nor the swelling scores at the joints nor animal cleanliness. In conclusion, both rubber coated slats and cubicles provided with soft lying mats were favourable with regard to the levels of lesions and swellings of the leg joints of finishing bulls compared to concrete slats. However, these levels were even lower in pens with a straw bedded lying area.

Short Communication: Contribution of Vibration and Noise During Milking to the Somatic Cell Count of Milk

We investigated the hypothesis that somatic cell counts (SCC) in milk are influenced by the vibration and noise experienced by dairy cows during milking. We therefore measured vibration and noise on 50 Swiss dairy farms (with herringbone, autotandem, side-by-side, or carousel parlors), where we also collected bulk tank SCC. Somatic cell counts increased with an increasing intensity of vibration but not with acoustic noise. Cows milked in autotandem and side-by-side parlors had lower SCC than those in the other 2 types of milking parlors. On 12 farms where the milking system was modified to reduce vibration and noise, SCC also dropped. In addition, the relative improvement in SCC seemed to be correlated with the relative improvement in the reduction of vibration but not with the improvement in acoustic noise. A reduction in vibration (structure-borne sonic waves) seemed to improve udder health, which may have been mediated by the increased well-being and reduced stress of cows during milking.