Absolute emission intensities of the gamma rays from the decay of 224Ra and 212Pb progenies and the half-life of the 212 Pb decay

Absolute gamma-ray emission intensities for 36 characteristic gamma rays from the decay of 224Ra, 212Pb, and their progeny were determined by measuring sources calibrated for activity by means of primary methods based on well-defined high-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors at both NIST and NPL. Results from the two laboratories agree with recent data evaluations, except for gamma rays with low emission intensities. The decay schemes have been re-balanced based on the new results. In addition, the half-life for 212Pb was measured using several HPGe detectors, ionization chambers, and a well-type NaI(Tl) detector.

Determination of the half-life and the absolute photon emission intensities for the main gamma-ray energies of 124I

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) performed new standardization measurements for ¹²⁴I. As part of this work the absolute photon emission intensity for the main gamma-rays of ¹²⁴I were determined using several high-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors. In addition, the half-life for ¹²⁴I was also determined using an HPGe detector. Ionization chamber measurements were performed for additional sources, but it was not possible to obtain a precise half-life value.

Determination of the internal pair production branching ratio of 90Y

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) measured the internal pair production branching ratio of ⁹⁰Y using two sources and four high purity germanium (HPGe) detectors to detect the resulting annihilation radiation. The internal pair production branching ratio determined from these measurements, (32.0 ± 1.5) × 10^-6 (k = 1), agrees within 1 standard uncertainty with the recommended value of (32.6 ± 0.7) × 10^-6 (k = 1) from the DDEP database.

Determining the probability of locating peaks using computerized peak-location methods in gamma-ray spectra as a function of the relative peak-area uncertainty

The probabilities of locating peaks with a high relative peak-area uncertainty were determined empirically with nine types of peak-location software used in laboratories engaged in gamma-ray spectrometry measurements. It was found that it is not possible to locate peaks with a probability of 0.95, when they have a relative peak-area uncertainty in excess of 50%. Locating peaks at these relatively high peak-area uncertainties with a probability greater than 0.95 is only possible in the library-driven mode, where the peak positions are supposed a-priori. The deficiencies of the library-driven mode and the possibilities to improve the probabilities of locating peaks are briefly discussed.

Standardization of 64Cu activity

The complex decay scheme that makes 64Cu promising as both an imaging and therapeutic agent in medicine also makes the absolute measurement of its activity challenging. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has completed a primary activity standardization of a 64CuCl2 solution using the 4πβ(LS)-γ(NaI) live-timed anticoincidence (LTAC) counting method with a combined standard uncertainty of 0.51 %. Two liquid scintillation (LS) counting methods were employed for confirmatory measurements. Secondary measurements were made by high-purity germanium detectors, pressurized ionization chambers (IC), and a well-type NaI(Tl) counter. Agreement between the LTAC-based standard and standards from other laboratories was established via IC calibration factors. Poor agreement between methods and with theoretical IC responses may indicate a need for improved β+/- branching probabilities and a better treatment of β+/- spectra.

Determination of photon emission probability for the main gamma ray and half-life measurements of 64Cu

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) performed new standardization measurements for 64Cu. As part of this work the photon emission probability for the main gamma-ray line and the half-life were determined using several high-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors. Half-life determinations were also carried out with a NaI(Tl) well counter and two pressurized ionization chambers.

Activity measurements of the radionuclides 18F and 64Cu for the NIST, USA in the ongoing comparisons BIPM.RI(II)-K4.F-18 and BIPM.RI(II)-K4.Cu-64

In 2016, comparisons of activity measurements of 18F and 64Cu using the Transfer Instrument of the International Reference System (SIRTI) took place at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST, USA). This is the first SIRTI comparison for 64Cu. Ampoules containing about 27 kBq of 18F and 100 kBq of 64Cu solutions were measured in the SIRTI for about 5 and 1.5 half-lives, respectively. The NIST standardized the activity in the ampoules by ionization chamber measurements traceable to 4π(LS)β-γ anticoincidence measurements. The comparisons, identifiers BIPM.RI(II)-K4.F-18 and BIPM.RI(II)-K4.Cu-64, are linked to the corresponding BIPM.RI(II)-K1.F-18 and BIPM.RI(II)-K1.Cu-64 comparisons and degrees of equivalence with the respective key comparison reference values have been evaluated. The NIST replaces its earlier degree of equivalence for 18F obtained in the frame of the CCRI(II)-K3.F-18 comparison in 2001.

Evidence against solar influence on nuclear decay constants

The hypothesis that proximity to the Sun causes variation of decay constants at permille level has been tested and disproved. Repeated activity measurements of mono-radionuclide sources were performed over periods from 200 days up to four decades at 14 laboratories across the globe. Residuals from the exponential nuclear decay curves were inspected for annual oscillations. Systematic deviations from a purely exponential decay curve differ from one data set to another and are attributable to instabilities in the instrumentation and measurement conditions. The most stable activity measurements of alpha, beta-minus, electron capture, and beta-plus decaying sources set an upper limit of 0.0006% to 0.008% to the amplitude of annual oscillations in the decay rate. Oscillations in phase with Earth's orbital distance to the Sun could not be observed within a 10^-6 to 10^-5 range of precision. There are also no apparent modulations over periods of weeks or months. Consequently, there is no indication of a natural impediment against sub-permille accuracy in half-life determinations, renormalisation of activity to a distant reference date, application of nuclear dating for archaeology, geo- and cosmochronology, nor in establishing the SI unit becquerel and seeking international equivalence of activity standards.

Determination of photon emission probabilities for the main gamma-rays of ²²³Ra in equilibrium with its progeny

The currently published (223)Ra gamma-ray emission probabilities display a wide variation in the values depending on the source of the data. The National Institute of Standards and Technology performed activity measurements on a (223)Ra solution that was used to prepare several sources that were used to determine the photon emission probabilities for the main gamma-rays of (223)Ra in equilibrium with its progeny. Several high purity germanium (HPGe) detectors were used to perform the gamma-ray spectrometry measurements.

Revision of the NIST Standard for (223)Ra: New Measurements and Review of 2008 Data

After discovering a discrepancy in the transfer standard currently being disseminated by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), we have performed a new primary standardization of the alpha-emitter (223)Ra using Live-timed Anticoincidence Counting (LTAC) and the Triple-to-Double Coincidence Ratio Method (TDCR). Additional confirmatory measurements were made with the CIEMAT-NIST efficiency tracing method (CNET) of liquid scintillation counting, integral γ-ray counting using a NaI(Tl) well counter, and several High Purity Germanium (HPGe) detectors in an attempt to understand the origin of the discrepancy and to provide a correction. The results indicate that a -9.5 % difference exists between activity values obtained using the former transfer standard relative to the new primary standardization. During one of the experiments, a 2 % difference in activity was observed between dilutions of the (223)Ra master solution prepared using the composition used in the original standardization and those prepared using 1 mol·L(-1) HCl. This effect appeared to be dependent on the number of dilutions or the total dilution factor to the master solution, but the magnitude was not reproducible. A new calibration factor ("K-value") has been determined for the NIST Secondary Standard Ionization Chamber (IC "A"), thereby correcting the discrepancy between the primary and secondary standards.

A new NIST primary standardization of 18F

A new primary standardization of (18)F by NIST is reported. The standard is based on live-timed beta-gamma anticoincidence counting with confirmatory measurements by three other methods: (i) liquid scintillation (LS) counting using CIEMAT/NIST (3)H efficiency tracing; (ii) triple-to-double coincidence ratio (TDCR) counting; and (iii) NaI integral counting and HPGe γ-ray spectrometry. The results are reported as calibration factors for NIST-maintained ionization chambers (including some "dose calibrators"). The LS-based methods reveal evidence for cocktail instability for one LS cocktail. Using an ionization chamber to link this work with previous NIST results, the new value differs from the previous reports by about 4%, but appears to be in good agreement with the key comparison reference value (KCRV) of 2005.

Development of a calibration methodology for large-volume, solid ⁶⁸Ge phantoms for traceable measurements in positron emission tomography

We have developed a methodology to calibrate the (68)Ge activity concentration in large (9L) cylindrical epoxy phantoms in a way that is traceable to national standards. The method was tested on two prototype cylindrical phantoms that are being used in a clinical trial and gave (68)Ge activity concentration values with combined standard uncertainties of about 1.1%. Imaging data from the phantoms using a calibrated PET-CT scanner gave values consistent with the calibrated activity concentrations within experimental uncertainties.

Calibration of Traceable Solid Mock (131)I Phantoms Used in an International SPECT Image Quantification Comparison

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has organized an international comparison to assess Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) image quantification capabilities in 12 countries. Iodine-131 was chosen as the radionuclide for the comparison because of its wide use around the world, but for logistical reasons solid (133)Ba sources were used as a long-lived surrogate for (131)I. For this study, we designed a set of solid cylindrical sources so that each site could have a set of phantoms (having nominal volumes of 2 mL, 4 mL, 6 mL, and 23 mL) with traceable activity calibrations so that the results could be properly compared. We also developed a technique using two different detection methods for individually calibrating the sources for (133)Ba activity based on a National standard. This methodology allows for the activity calibration of each (133)Ba source with a standard uncertainty on the activity of 1.4 % for the high-level 2-, 4-, and 6-mL sources and 1.7 % for the lower-level 23 mL cylinders. This level of uncertainty allows for these sources to be used for the intended comparison exercise, as well as in other SPECT image quantification studies.

Recommendations for Improving Consistency in the Radiation Fields Used During Testing of Radiation Detection Instruments for Homeland Security Applications

Several measurements and calculations were performed to illustrate the differences that can be observed in the determination of exposure rate or ambient dose equivalent rate used for testing radiation detection systems against consensus standards. The large variations observed support our recommendation that better consistency in the test radiation fields can be achieved by specifying the source activity and testing distance instead of the field strength.

Measurements for the Development of a Simulated Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material

Nineteen different commercially available samples containing naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) (i.e., natural uranium, thorium, radium and potassium) were investigated, including zircon sand, cat litter, roofing tiles, ice melt and fertilizer among others. A large variation in isotopic composition was observed across the measured samples. As a result of this observation, a need was identified to develop and implement the use of a simulated NORM sample to serve as a reference standard sample containing naturally occurring radioactive elements. The purpose of the simulated NORM sample would be to simulate typical samples containing NORM to be used for testing radiation detection instruments against ANSI/IEEE and IEC document standards requirements. The design and construction of the proposed new simulated NORM sample and the subsequent energy spectra characterization measurements are presented as part of this work.

Validation testing of ANSI/IEEE n42.49 standard requirements for personal emergency radiation detectors

Various radiation detectors including electronic personal emergency radiation detectors (PERDs), radiochromic film cards and thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) were used to validate a subset of the radiological test requirements listed in the American National Standards Institute/The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (ANSI/IEEE) N42.49 standard. The subset of tests included the following: comparing the readout of the detectors with the value given at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST); testing of the alarm settings (when applicable) in air-kerma (or exposure) and air-kerma rate (or exposure rate) mode; and investigating the effect of testing the detectors mounted on a phantom and free in air. The purpose of this work was not to test the performance of the sample of detectors used. Instead, the detectors were used to validate the requirements of the written standard being developed. For this purpose, the performance and response of these instruments were recorded when placed in (137)Cs, and x-ray beams at different air-kerma rates and test conditions. The measurements described in this report were performed at the NIST x-ray and gamma-ray radiation calibration facilities. The data in this report provide a benchmark in support of the development of the ANSI/IEEE N42.49 standard.

A new primary standardization of 229Th

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has certified a high-purity (229)Th Standard Reference Material as SRM 4328C, based on live-timed 4pialphabeta-gamma anticoincidence counting (LTAC) of the equilibrium solution. The LTAC system was optimized to minimize the uncertainty in the result due to the two short-lived ground-states present in the decay chain. Confirmatory measurements were carried out by four other methods. Furthermore, the present absolute activity and measured gamma-ray emission rates were combined to obtain gamma-ray emission probabilities.

New Spherical Gamma-Ray and Neutron Emitting Sources for Testing of Radiation Detection Instruments

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has developed new gamma-ray and neutron emitting sources for testing radiation detection systems. These radioactive sources were developed for testing of detection systems in maritime applications. This required special source characteristics.

Evaluation of resonance ionization mass spectrometry for the determination of 135Cs/137Cs isotope ratios in low-level samples

The ability of Resonance Ionization Mass Spectrometry (RIMS) to reliably determine the ratio of 135Cs/137Cs in the presence of large backgrounds has been evaluated. Single-resonance excitation of Cs 6s 2S1/2(F=4)→6p 2P3/2(F'=5) with an extended cavity diode laser was followed by photoionization with the 488 nm line of an argon ion laser. While the principal objective was to avoid isobaric interferences, an optical selectivity of 3 orders of magnitude against stable 133Cs was attained for both 135Cs and 137Cs. The overall RIMS efficiency was found to be ∼ 2×10-6 with a combined (laser and mass spectrometer) selectivity of ∼ 1010 for both 135Cs and 137Cs against 133Cs. The performance with respect to efficiency, selectivity, and isobar suppression has been compared to conventional thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS). Measurements to determine the chronological age of a burn-up sample have been performed using both methods.

The air-kerma rate constant: application to air-kerma measurements for homeland security

Air-kerma rate measurements from 57Co, 60Co, and 137Cs radioactive sources were performed. These measurements were motivated by the development of new sources at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) for radiological testing of equipment for homeland security applications. The testing of radiation detection equipment relies on knowing the values of the air-kerma rate for the radioactive sources at a fixed distance from the source. The air-kerma rate can be measured or alternatively estimated by using published values of the air-kerma rate constant. Although there are a large number of published values of the air-kerma rate constant for radionuclide sources based on theoretical calculations, strong disagreement is observed throughout the literature. Furthermore, most of the published values have no uncertainties assigned, and therefore their use for testing radiological equipment is limited. In this work we report experimentally-measured values of the air-kerma rate for three radionuclides with well defined source geometries and activities. The results are compared to estimates based on published values of the air-kerma rate constant. Such values are easily found in the literature from the last three decades and are used commonly by the scientific community.

A liquid-scintillation-based primary standardization of 210Pb

A new radioactivity solution standard of 210Pb has been developed and will be disseminated by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) as standard reference material (SRM) 4337. This new 210Pb solution standard is contained in a 5 mL flame-sealed borosilicate glass ampoule, consists of (5.133+/-0.002)g of a nominal 1mol L(-1) nitric acid solution, has a density of (1.028+/-0.002)g mL(-1) at 20 degrees C, has carrier ion concentrations of about 11 microg Pb2+ and 21 microg Bi3+ per gram of solution, and is certified to contain a massic activity (9.037+/-0.22)kBq g(-1) as of the reference time 1200 EST, 15 June 2006. All of the uncertainties cited above correspond to standard uncertainties multiplied by a coverage factor k=2. The standardization for the (210)Pb content of the solution was based on 4pialphabeta liquid scintillation (LS) measurements using CIEMAT/NIST (3)H-standard efficiency tracing (CNET). Confirmatory determinations were also performed by high-resolution HPGe gamma-ray spectrometry, by 2pialpha spectrometry with a Si surface barrier detector of separated 210Po, and by 4pibeta(LS)-gamma(NaI) anticoincidence counting.

Development of gamma-ray emitting test sources for portal monitors

A new set of gamma-ray emitting test sources was designed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) for testing of radiation portal monitors for homeland security applications. This paper provides a description of the construction and characterization of these new sources that were designed and built to meet the American National Standard Institute (ANSI) N42.35-2004 and N42.38 standards' requirements.

Calibration of HPGe gamma-ray detectors for measurement of radioactive noble gas sources

Measurements of radioactive noble gases are routinely made with gamma-ray spectrometers. This work describes the calibration of high purity germanium detectors provided by the full-energy-peak efficiency as a function of the gamma-ray energy. A comparison of measured efficiency values with a new, simplified method based on a direct mathematical method is given here.

Software studies for germanium detectors data analysis

Efficiency calibrations of multiple high-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors are being maintained at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Four generally available software packages for HPGe detector gamma-ray spectrum analysis, including the one currently used at NIST, were tested on spectra collected from two HPGe detectors at different source-to-detector distances and using point sources and ampoules as calibration geometries. The resulting efficiency curves were inter-compared.

Test of radiation detectors used in homeland security applications

This work was performed as part of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) program to support the development of the new American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standards N42.32-2003 and N42.33-2003 for hand-held detectors, and personal electronic dosimeters, as well as to support the Office of Law Enforcement Standards (OLES) and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) in testing these types of detectors for their use by first responders. These instruments are required to operate over a photon energy range of 60 keV to 1.33 MeV and over a wide range of air-kerma rates. The performance and response of various radiation detectors, purchased by the NIST, was recorded when placed in 60Co, 137Cs, and x-ray beams at different air-kerma rates. The measurements described in this report were performed at the NIST x-ray and gamma-ray radiation calibration facilities. The instruments' response (exposure or dose rate readings) shows strong energy dependence but almost no dependence to different air-kerma rates. The data here reported provide a benchmark in support of current protocols that are being developed for radiation detection instrumentation used in homeland security applications. A future plan is to test these devices, plus other commercially available detectors, against ANSI standards N42.32-2003 and N42.33-2003.

Gamma-ray emitting test sources for Portal Monitors used for homeland security

The National Institute of Standards and Technology developed a new set of test sources for testing of portal monitors against the ANSI standard N42.35-2004. The design and source specifications are provided in this work.

Evaluation of Handheld Radionuclide Identifiers

Characterization of commercially available instruments for measurement and identification of unknown radionuclides was carried out in support of the development and testing of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard, N42.34, "Performance Criteria for Hand-held Instruments for the Detection and Identification of Radionuclides." Measurements were based on the performance of the devices, i.e., the capability of the detectors to ensure a correct radionuclide identification in a given time interval for various radioactive sources.

Laser resonance ionization mass spectrometry measurements of cesium in nuclear burn-up and sediment samples

Isotopic ratio measurements of 135Cs to 137Cs were performed using both resonance ionization mass spectrometry (RIMS) and thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) to determine the chronological age of nuclear fuel burn-up samples. Initial measurements on a lake sediment sample are being performed at NIST for determination of cesium content in the sample. Atomization behavior of the graphite furnace source, the overall efficiency and selectivity were measured for different sample preparations. Single-resonance excitation 6s 2S1/2 (F=4) --> 6p 2P3/2 (F' = 5) with an extended cavity diode laser followed by photoionization with the 488nm line of an argon ion laser yielded optical selectivity for 135Cs and 137Cs of more than two orders of magnitude against stable 133Cs and overall selectivity of 10(8). An overall efficiency of 5 x 10(-7) was measured for standard 133Cs solutions and for the nuclear fuel burn-up samples.

Performance of CdTe, HPGe and NaI(Tl) detectors for radioactivity measurements

The characteristics and performances of the NIST High-Purity Germanium (HPGe), Sodium Iodide (NaI(Tl)) and Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) gamma-ray detectors were studied. The efficiencies, the minimum detectable activities and the energy resolutions of each were measured and compared. The data were analyzed using different software packages. The measurements were performed in a low background radiation environment using calibrated point sources. The CdTe detector showed a higher energy resolution than the NaI(Tl) detector but a lower efficiency than both the HPGe and NaI(Tl) detectors. This makes it a suitable detector only for relatively high activity measurements restricted to the 35 keV to 200 keV energy range.

Use of resonance ionization mass spectrometry for determination of Cs ratios in solid samples

A method to quantitatively determine the radionuclidic content of complex samples with a minimum of chemical preparation has been under development at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Based on earlier studies with resonance ionization mass spectrometry (RIMS), a graphite furnace was added to the RIMS system at NIST. Efficiency determinations for 133Cs in solution and isotopic ratio measurements of cesium (135Cs/137Cs) for an NIST nuclear burn-up sample using RIMS and for a sediment natural matrix standard using thermal ionization mass spectrometry are presented.