Contrasting Behavior of Higher Plant Photosystem I and II Antenna Systems during Acclimation

In this work we analyzed the photosynthetic apparatus in Arabidopsis thaliana plants acclimated to different light intensity and temperature conditions. Plants showed the ability to acclimate into different environments and avoid photoinhibition. When grown in high light, plants had a faster activation rate for energy dissipation (qE). This ability was correlated to higher accumulation levels of a specific photosystem II subunit, PsbS. The photosystem II antenna size was also regulated according to light exposure; smaller antenna size was observed in high light-acclimated plants with respect to low light plants. Different antenna polypeptides did not behave similarly, and Lhcb1, Lchb2, and Lhcb6 (CP24) are shown to undergo major levels of regulation, whereas Lhcb4 and Lhcb5 (CP29 and CP26) maintained their stoichiometry with respect to the reaction center in all growth conditions. The effect of acclimation on photosystem I antenna was different; in fact, the stoichiometry of any Lhca antenna proteins with respect to photosystem I core complex was not affected by growth conditions. Despite this stability in antenna stoichiometry, photosystem I light harvesting function was shown to be regulated through different mechanisms like the control of photosystem I to photosystem II ratio and the association or dissociation of Lhcb polypeptides to photosystem I.

A mechanism of nonphotochemical energy dissipation, independent from PsbS, revealed by a conformational change in the antenna protein CP26

The regulation of light harvesting in higher plant photosynthesis, defined as stress-dependent modulation of the ratio of energy transfer to the reaction centers versus heat dissipation, was studied by means of carotenoid biosynthesis mutants and recombinant light harvesting complexes (LHCs) with modified chromophore binding. The npq2 mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana, blocked in the biosynthesis of violaxanthin and thus accumulating zeaxanthin, was shown to have a lower fluorescence yield of chlorophyll in vivo and, correspondingly, a higher level of energy dissipation, with respect to the wild-type strain and npq1 mutant, the latter of which is incapable of zeaxanthin accumulation. Experiments on purified thylakoid membranes from all three mutants showed that the major source of the difference between the npq2 and wild-type preparations was a change in pigment to protein interactions, which can explain the lower chlorophyll fluorescence yield in the npq2 samples. Analysis of the xanthophyll binding LHC proteins showed that the Lhcb5 photosystem II subunit (also called CP26) undergoes a change in its pI upon binding of zeaxanthin. The same effect was observed in wild-type CP26 upon treatment that leads to the accumulation of zeaxanthin in the membrane and was interpreted as the consequence of a conformational change. This hypothesis was confirmed by the analysis of two recombinant proteins obtained by overexpression of the Lhcb5 apoprotein in Escherichia coli and reconstitution in vitro with either violaxanthin or zeaxanthin. The V and Z containing pigment-protein complexes obtained by this procedure showed different pIs and high and low fluorescence yields, respectively. These results confirm that LHC proteins exist in multiple conformations, an idea suggested by previous spectroscopic measurements (Moya et al., 2001), and imply that the switch between the different LHC protein conformations is activated by the binding of zeaxanthin to the allosteric site L2. The results suggest that the quenching process induced by the accumulation of zeaxanthin contributes to qI, a component of NPQ whose origin was previously poorly understood.

Lutein is needed for efficient chlorophyll triplet quenching in the major LHCII antenna complex of higher plants and effective photoprotection in vivo under strong light

BACKGROUND

Lutein is the most abundant xanthophyll in the photosynthetic apparatus of higher plants. It binds to site L1 of all Lhc proteins, whose occupancy is indispensable for protein folding and quenching chlorophyll triplets. Thus, the lack of a visible phenotype in mutants lacking lutein has been surprising.

RESULTS

We have re-assessed the lut2.1 phenotypes through biochemical and spectroscopic methods. Lhc proteins from the lut2.1 mutant compensate the lack of lutein by binding violaxanthin in sites L1 and L2. This substitution reduces the capacity for regulatory mechanisms such as NPQ, reduces antenna size, induces the compensatory synthesis of Antheraxanthin + Zeaxanthin, and prevents the trimerization of LHCII complexes. In vitro reconstitution shows that the lack of lutein per se is sufficient to prevent trimerization. lut2.1 showed a reduced capacity for state I-state II transitions, a selective degradation of Lhcb1 and 2, and a higher level of photodamage in high light and/or low temperature, suggesting that violaxanthin cannot fully restore chlorophyll triplet quenching. In vitro photobleaching experiments and time-resolved spectroscopy of carotenoid triplet formation confirmed this hypothesis. The npq1lut2.1 double mutant, lacking both zeaxanthin and lutein, is highly susceptible to light stress.

CONCLUSION

Lutein has the specific property of quenching harmful 3Chl* by binding at site L1 of the major LHCII complex and of other Lhc proteins of plants, thus preventing ROS formation. Substitution of lutein by violaxanthin decreases the efficiency of 3Chl* quenching and causes higher ROS yield. The phenotype of lut2.1 mutant in low light is weak only because rescuing mechanisms of photoprotection, namely zeaxanthin synthesis, compensate for the ROS production. We conclude that zeaxanthin is effective in photoprotection of plants lacking lutein due to the multiple effects of zeaxanthin in photoprotection, including ROS scavenging and direct quenching of Chl fluorescence by binding to the L2 allosteric site of Lhc proteins.

Minor antenna proteins CP24 and CP26 affect the interactions between photosystem II subunits and the electron transport rate in grana membranes of Arabidopsis

We investigated the function of chlorophyll a/b binding antenna proteins Chlorophyll Protein 26 (CP26) and CP24 in light harvesting and regulation of photosynthesis by isolating Arabidopsis thaliana knockout lines that completely lacked one or both of these proteins. All three mutant lines had a decreased efficiency of energy transfer from trimeric light-harvesting complex II (LHCII) to the reaction center of photosystem II (PSII) due to the physical disconnection of LHCII from PSII and formation of PSII reaction center depleted domains in grana partitions. Photosynthesis was affected in plants lacking CP24 but not in plants lacking CP26: the former mutant had decreased electron transport rates, a lower DeltapH gradient across the grana membranes, reduced capacity for nonphotochemical quenching, and limited growth. Furthermore, the PSII particles of these plants were organized in unusual two-dimensional arrays in the grana membranes. Surprisingly, overall electron transport, nonphotochemical quenching, and growth of the double mutant were restored to wild type. Fluorescence induction kinetics and electron transport measurements at selected steps of the photosynthetic chain suggested that limitation in electron transport was due to restricted electron transport between Q(A) and Q(B), which retards plastoquinone diffusion. We conclude that CP24 absence alters PSII organization and consequently limits plastoquinone diffusion.

Photoprotection in the antenna complexes of photosystem II: role of individual xanthophylls in chlorophyll triplet quenching

In this work the photoprotective role of all xanthophylls in LHCII, Lhcb4, and Lhcb5 is investigated by laser-induced Triplet-minus-Singlet (TmS) spectroscopy. The comparison of native LHCII trimeric complexes with different carotenoid composition shows that the xanthophylls in sites V1 and N1 do not directly contribute to the chlorophyll triplet quenching. The largest part of the triplets is quenched by the lutein bound in site L1, which is located in close proximity to the chlorophylls responsible for the low energy state of the complex. The lutein in the L2 site is also active in triplet quenching, and it shows a longer triplet lifetime than the lutein in the L1 site. This lifetime difference depends on the occupancy of the N1 binding site, where neoxanthin acts as an oxygen barrier, limiting the access of O(2) to the inner domain of the Lhc complex, thereby strongly contributing to the photostability. The carotenoid triplet decay of monomeric Lhcb1, Lhcb4, and Lhcb5 is mono-exponential, with shorter lifetimes than observed for trimeric LHCII, suggesting that their inner domains are more accessible for O(2). As for trimeric LHCII, only the xanthophylls in sites L1 and L2 are active in triplet quenching. Although the chlorophyll to carotenoid triplet transfer is efficient (95%) in all complexes, it is not perfect, leaving 5% of the chlorophyll triplets unquenched. This effect appears to be intrinsically related to the molecular organization of the Lhcb proteins.

The Arabidopsis aba4-1 mutant reveals a specific function for neoxanthin in protection against photooxidative stress

The aba4-1 mutant completely lacks neoxanthin but retains all other xanthophyll species. The missing neoxanthin in light-harvesting complex (Lhc) proteins is compensated for by higher levels of violaxanthin, albeit with lower capacity for photoprotection compared with proteins with wild-type levels of neoxanthin. Detached leaves of aba4-1 were more sensitive to oxidative stress than the wild type when exposed to high light and incubated in a solution of photosensitizer agents. Both treatments caused more rapid pigment bleaching and lipid oxidation in aba4-1 than wild-type plants, suggesting that neoxanthin acts as an antioxidant within the photosystem II (PSII) supercomplex in thylakoids. While neoxanthin-depleted Lhc proteins and leaves had similar sensitivity as the wild type to hydrogen peroxide and singlet oxygen, they were more sensitive to superoxide anions. aba4-1 intact plants were not more sensitive than the wild type to high-light stress, indicating the existence of compensatory mechanisms of photoprotection involving the accumulation of zeaxanthin. However, the aba4-1 npq1 double mutant, lacking zeaxanthin and neoxanthin, underwent stronger PSII photoinhibition and more extensive oxidation of pigments than the npq1 mutant, which still contains neoxanthin. We conclude that neoxanthin preserves PSII from photoinactivation and protects membrane lipids from photooxidation by reactive oxygen species. Neoxanthin appears particularly active against superoxide anions produced by the Mehler's reaction, whose rate is known to be enhanced in abiotic stress conditions.

Enhanced photoprotection by protein-bound vs free xanthophyll pools: a comparative analysis of chlorophyll b and xanthophyll biosynthesis mutants

When light absorbed by plants exceeds the capacity of photosynthesis, the xanthophyll violaxanthin is reversibly de-epoxidized to zeaxanthin in the so-called xanthophyll cycle. Zeaxanthin plays a key role in the protection of photosynthetic organisms against excess light, by promoting rapidly reversible (qE) and long-term (qI) quenching of excited chlorophylls, and preventing lipid oxidation. The photoprotective role of zeaxanthin, either free or bound to light-harvesting complexes (Lhcs), has been investigated by using mutants lacking Chl b (ch1) and/or specific xanthophyll species (npq, lut2). The ch1 mutation causes (1) the absence of Lhcb proteins; (2) strong reduction of the feedback de-excitation (qE); and (3) accumulation of xanthophylls as free pigments into thylakoids. Ch1 mutants showed extreme sensitivity to photo-oxidative stress in high light, due to higher singlet oxygen (¹O₂) release. The double mutant ch1npq1 was more sensitive to photo-oxidation than ch1, showing that zeaxanthin does protect lipids even when free in the membrane. Nevertheless, lack of zeaxanthin had a much stronger impact on the level of lipid peroxidation in Lhcs-containing plants (WT vs npq1) with respect to Lhc-less plants (ch1 vs ch1npq1), implying that its protective effect is enhanced by interaction with antenna proteins. It is proposed that the antioxidant capacity of zeaxanthin is empowered in the presence of PSII-LHCs-Zea complexes, while its effect on enhancement of qE only provides a minor contribution. Comparison of the sensitivity of WT vs npq1 plants to exogenous ¹O₂ suggests that besides the scavenging of ¹O₂, at least one additional mechanism is involved in chloroplast photoprotection.

The effect of zeaxanthin as the only xanthophyll on the structure and function of the photosynthetic apparatus in Arabidopsis thaliana

In green plants, the xanthophyll carotenoid zeaxanthin is synthesized transiently under conditions of excess light energy and participates in photoprotection. In the Arabidopsis lut2 npq2 double mutant, all xanthophylls were replaced constitutively by zeaxanthin, the only xanthophyll whose synthesis was not impaired. The relative proportions of the different chlorophyll antenna proteins were strongly affected with respect to the wild-type strain. The major antenna, LHCII, did not form trimers, and its abundance was strongly reduced as was CP26, albeit to a lesser extent. In contrast, CP29, CP24, LHCI proteins, and the PSI and PSII core complexes did not undergo major changes. PSII-LHCII supercomplexes were not detectable while the PSI-LHCI supercomplex remained unaffected. The effect of zeaxanthin accumulation on the stability of the different Lhc proteins was uneven: the LHCII proteins from lut2 npq2 had a lower melting temperature as compared with the wild-type complex while LHCI showed increased resistance to heat denaturation. Consistent with the loss of LHCII, light-state 1 to state 2 transitions were suppressed, the photochemical efficiency in limiting light was reduced and photosynthesis was saturated at higher light intensities in lut2 npq2 leaves, resulting in a photosynthetic phenotype resembling that of high light-acclimated leaves. Zeaxanthin functioned in vivo as a light-harvesting accessory pigment in lut2 npq2 chlorophyll antennae. As a whole, the in vivo data are consistent with the results obtained by using recombinant Lhc proteins reconstituted in vitro with purified zeaxanthin. While PSII photoinhibition was similar in wild type and lut2 npq2 exposed to high light at low temperature, the double mutant was much more resistant to photooxidative stress and lipid peroxidation than the wild type. The latter observation is consistent with an antioxidant and lipid protective role of zeaxanthin in vivo.

A zeaxanthin-independent nonphotochemical quenching mechanism localized in the photosystem II core complex

Illumination of dark-adapted barley plants with low light transiently induced a large nonphotochemical quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence. This reaction was identified as a form of high-energy-state quenching. Its appearance was not accompanied by zeaxanthin synthesis but was associated with a reversible inactivation of a fraction of photosystem II (PSII) centers. Both the fluorescence quenching and PSII inactivation relaxed in parallel with the activation of the Calvin cycle. We interpret the induction of this phenomenon as due to the generation of a quenched state in the PSII core complex. This reaction is probably caused by the transient overacidification of the thylakoid lumen, whereas its dissipation results from the relaxation of both the pH gradient across the thylakoid membrane and redox pressure upon activation of carbon fixation. At saturating light intensities, inactivation of PSII was still observed at the onset of illumination, although its recovery did not result in dissipation of high-energy quenching, which presents typical characteristics of an antenna-associated quenching at steady state. Reaction-center quenching seems therefore to be a common transient feature during illumination, being replaced by other phenomena (photochemical or antenna quenching and photoinhibition), depending on the balance between light and carbon fixation fluxes.

Two mechanisms for dissipation of excess light in monomeric and trimeric light-harvesting complexes

Oxygenic photoautotrophs require mechanisms for rapidly matching the level of chlorophyll excited states from light harvesting with the rate of electron transport from water to carbon dioxide. These photoprotective reactions prevent formation of reactive excited states and photoinhibition. The fastest response to excess illumination is the so-called non-photochemical quenching which, in higher plants, requires the luminal pH sensor PsbS and other yet unidentified components of the photosystem II antenna. Both trimeric light-harvesting complex II (LHCII) and monomeric LHC proteins have been indicated as site(s) of the heat-dissipative reactions. Different mechanisms have been proposed: energy transfer to a lutein quencher in trimers, formation of a zeaxanthin radical cation in monomers. Here, we report on the construction of a mutant lacking all monomeric LHC proteins but retaining LHCII trimers. Its non-photochemical quenching induction rate was substantially slower with respect to the wild type. A carotenoid radical cation signal was detected in the wild type, although it was lost in the mutant. We conclude that non-photochemical quenching is catalysed by two independent mechanisms, with the fastest activated response catalysed within monomeric LHC proteins depending on both zeaxanthin and lutein and on the formation of a radical cation. Trimeric LHCII was responsible for the slowly activated quenching component whereas inclusion in supercomplexes was not required. This latter activity does not depend on lutein nor on charge transfer events, whereas zeaxanthin was essential.

Different Roles of α- and β-Branch Xanthophylls in Photosystem Assembly and Photoprotection

Xanthophylls (oxygenated carotenoids) are essential components of the plant photosynthetic apparatus, where they act in photosystem assembly, light harvesting, and photoprotection. Nevertheless, the specific function of individual xanthophyll species awaits complete elucidation. In this work, we analyze the photosynthetic phenotypes of two newly isolated Arabidopsis mutants in carotenoid biosynthesis containing exclusively alpha-branch (chy1chy2lut5) or beta-branch (chy1chy2lut2) xanthophylls. Both mutants show complete lack of qE, the rapidly reversible component of nonphotochemical quenching, and high levels of photoinhibition and lipid peroxidation under photooxidative stress. Both mutants are much more photosensitive than npq1lut2, which contains high levels of viola- and neoxanthin and a higher stoichiometry of light-harvesting proteins with respect to photosystem II core complexes, suggesting that the content in light-harvesting complexes plays an important role in photoprotection. In addition, chy1chy2lut5, which has lutein as the only xanthophyll, shows unprecedented photosensitivity even in low light conditions, reduced electron transport rate, enhanced photobleaching of isolated LHCII complexes, and a selective loss of CP26 with respect to chy1chy2lut2, highlighting a specific role of beta-branch xanthophylls in photoprotection and in qE mechanism. The stronger photosystem II photoinhibition of both mutants correlates with the higher rate of singlet oxygen production from thylakoids and isolated light-harvesting complexes, whereas carotenoid composition of photosystem II core complex was not influential. In depth analysis of the mutant phenotypes suggests that alpha-branch (lutein) and beta-branch (zeaxanthin, violaxanthin, and neoxanthin) xanthophylls have distinct and complementary roles in antenna protein assembly and in the mechanisms of photoprotection.

Zeaxanthin protects plant photosynthesis by modulating chlorophyll triplet yield in specific light-harvesting antenna subunits

Plants are particularly prone to photo-oxidative damage caused by excess light. Photoprotection is essential for photosynthesis to proceed in oxygenic environments either by scavenging harmful reactive intermediates or preventing their accumulation to avoid photoinhibition. Carotenoids play a key role in protecting photosynthesis from the toxic effect of over-excitation; under excess light conditions, plants accumulate a specific carotenoid, zeaxanthin, that was shown to increase photoprotection. In this work we genetically dissected different components of zeaxanthin-dependent photoprotection. By using time-resolved differential spectroscopy in vivo, we identified a zeaxanthin-dependent optical signal characterized by a red shift in the carotenoid peak of the triplet-minus-singlet spectrum of leaves and pigment-binding proteins. By fractionating thylakoids into their component pigment binding complexes, the signal was found to originate from the monomeric Lhcb4-6 antenna components of Photosystem II and the Lhca1-4 subunits of Photosystem I. By analyzing mutants based on their sensitivity to excess light, the red-shifted triplet-minus-singlet signal was tightly correlated with photoprotection in the chloroplasts, suggesting the signal implies an increased efficiency of zeaxanthin in controlling chlorophyll triplet formation. Fluorescence-detected magnetic resonance analysis showed a decrease in the amplitude of signals assigned to chlorophyll triplets belonging to the monomeric antenna complexes of Photosystem II upon zeaxanthin binding; however, the amplitude of carotenoid triplet signal does not increase correspondingly. Results show that the high light-induced binding of zeaxanthin to specific proteins plays a major role in enhancing photoprotection by modulating the yield of potentially dangerous chlorophyll-excited states in vivo and preventing the production of singlet oxygen.

Effect of antenna-depletion in Photosystem II on excitation energy transfer in Arabidopsis thaliana

The role of individual photosynthetic antenna complexes of Photosystem II (PSII) both in membrane organization and excitation energy transfer have been investigated. Thylakoid membranes from wild-type Arabidopsis thaliana, and three mutants lacking light-harvesting complexes CP24, CP26, or CP29, respectively, were studied by picosecond-fluorescence spectroscopy. By using different excitation/detection wavelength combinations it was possible for the first time, to our knowledge, to separate PSI and PSII fluorescence kinetics. The sub-100 ps component, previously ascribed entirely to PSI, turns out to be due partly to PSII. Moreover, the migration time of excitations from antenna to PSII reaction center (RC) was determined for the first time, to our knowledge, for thylakoid membranes. It is four times longer than for PSII-only membranes, due to additional antenna complexes, which are less well connected to the RC. The results in the absence of CP26 are very similar to those of wild-type, demonstrating that the PSII organization is not disturbed. However, the kinetics in the absence of CP29 and, especially, of CP24 show that a large fraction of the light-harvesting complexes becomes badly connected to the RCs. Interestingly, the excited-state lifetimes of the disconnected light-harvesting complexes seem to be substantially quenched.

Dissipation of Light Energy Absorbed in Excess: The Molecular Mechanisms

Light is essential for photosynthesis. Nevertheless, its intensity widely changes depending on time of day, weather, season, and localization of individual leaves within canopies. This variability means that light collected by the light-harvesting system is often in excess with respect to photon fluence or spectral quality in the context of the capacity of photosynthetic metabolism to use ATP and reductants produced from the light reactions. Absorption of excess light can lead to increased production of excited, highly reactive intermediates, which expose photosynthetic organisms to serious risks of oxidative damage. Prevention and management of such stress are performed by photoprotective mechanisms, which operate by cutting down light absorption, limiting the generation of redox-active molecules, or scavenging reactive oxygen species that are released despite the operation of preventive mechanisms. Here, we describe the major physiological and molecular mechanisms of photoprotection involved in the harmless removal of the excess light energy absorbed by green algae and land plants. In vivo analyses of mutants targeting photosynthetic components and the enhanced resolution of spectroscopic techniques have highlighted specific mechanisms protecting the photosynthetic apparatus from overexcitation. Recent findings unveil a network of multiple interacting elements, the reaction times of which vary from a millisecond to weeks, that continuously maintain photosynthetic organisms within the narrow safety range between efficient light harvesting and photoprotection.

Single-molecule spectroscopy of LHCSR1 protein dynamics identifies two distinct states responsible for multi-timescale photosynthetic photoprotection

In oxygenic photosynthesis, light harvesting is regulated to safely dissipate excess energy and prevent the formation of harmful photoproducts. Regulation is known to be necessary for fitness, but the molecular mechanisms are not understood. One challenge has been that ensemble experiments average over active and dissipative behaviours, preventing identification of distinct states. Here, we use single-molecule spectroscopy to uncover the photoprotective states and dynamics of the light-harvesting complex stress-related 1 (LHCSR1) protein, which is responsible for dissipation in green algae and moss. We discover the existence of two dissipative states. We find that one of these states is activated by pH and the other by carotenoid composition, and that distinct protein dynamics regulate these states. Together, these two states enable the organism to respond to two types of intermittency in solar intensity-step changes (clouds and shadows) and ramp changes (sunrise), respectively. Our findings reveal key control mechanisms underlying photoprotective dissipation, with implications for increasing biomass yields and developing robust solar energy devices.

Action spectra of photosystems II and I and quantum yield of photosynthesis in leaves in State 1

The spectral global quantum yield (YII, electrons/photons absorbed) of photosystem II (PSII) was measured in sunflower leaves in State 1 using monochromatic light. The global quantum yield of PSI (YI) was measured using low-intensity monochromatic light flashes and the associated transmittance change at 810nm. The 810-nm signal change was calibrated based on the number of electrons generated by PSII during the flash (4·O2 evolution) which arrived at the PSI donor side after a delay of 2ms. The intrinsic quantum yield of PSI (yI, electrons per photon absorbed by PSI) was measured at 712nm, where photon absorption by PSII was small. The results were used to resolve the individual spectra of the excitation partitioning coefficients between PSI (aI) and PSII (aII) in leaves. For comparison, pigment-protein complexes for PSII and PSI were isolated, separated by sucrose density ultracentrifugation, and their optical density was measured. A good correlation was obtained for the spectral excitation partitioning coefficients measured by these different methods. The intrinsic yield of PSI was high (yI=0.88), but it absorbed only about 1/3 of quanta; consequently, about 2/3 of quanta were absorbed by PSII, but processed with the low intrinsic yield yII=0.63. In PSII, the quantum yield of charge separation was 0.89 as detected by variable fluorescence Fv/Fm, but 29% of separated charges recombined (Laisk A, Eichelmann H and Oja V, Photosynth. Res. 113, 145-155). At wavelengths less than 580nm about 30% of excitation is absorbed by pigments poorly connected to either photosystem, most likely carotenoids bound in pigment-protein complexes.

Nonphotochemical Quenching of Chlorophyll Fluorescence inChlamydomonas reinhardtii

Unlike plants, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii shows a restricted ability to develop nonphotochemical quenching upon illumination. Most of this limited quenching is due to state transitions instead of DeltapH-driven high-energy state quenching, qE. The latter could only be observed when the ability of the cells to perform photosynthesis was impaired, either by lowering temperature to approximately 0 degrees C or in mutants lacking RubisCO activity. Two main features were identified that account for the low level of qE in Chlamydomonas. On one hand, the electrochemical proton gradient generated upon illumination is apparently not sufficient to promote fluorescence quenching. On the other hand, the capacity to transduce the presence of a DeltapH into a quenching response is also intrinsically decreased in this alga, when compared to plants. The possible mechanism leading to these differences is discussed.

The light stress-induced protein ELIP2 is a regulator of chlorophyll synthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana

The early light-induced proteins (ELIPs) belong to the multigenic family of pigment-binding light-harvesting complexes. ELIPs accumulate transiently and are believed to play a protective role in plants exposed to high levels of light. Constitutive expression of the ELIP2 gene in Arabidopsis resulted in a marked reduction of the pigment content of the chloroplasts, both in mature leaves and during greening of etiolated seedlings. The chlorophyll loss was associated with a decrease in the number of photosystems in the thylakoid membranes, but the photosystems present were fully assembled and functional. A detailed analysis of the chlorophyll-synthesizing pathway indicated that ELIP2 accumulation downregulated the level and activity of two important regulatory steps: 5-aminolevulinate synthesis and Mg-protoporphyrin IX (Mg-Proto IX) chelatase activity. The contents of glutamyl tRNA reductase and Mg chelatase subunits CHLH and CHLI were lowered in response to ELIP2 accumulation. In contrast, ferrochelatase activity was not affected and the inhibition of Heme synthesis was null or very moderate. As a result of reduced metabolic flow from 5-aminolevulinic acid, the steady state levels of various chlorophyll precursors (from protoporphyrin IX to protochlorophyllide) were strongly reduced in the ELIP2 overexpressors. Taken together, our results indicate that the physiological function of ELIPs could be related to the regulation of chlorophyll concentration in thylakoids. This seems to occur through an inhibition of the entire chlorophyll biosynthesis pathway from the initial precursor of tetrapyrroles, 5-aminolevulinic acid. We suggest that ELIPs work as chlorophyll sensors that modulate chlorophyll synthesis to prevent accumulation of free chlorophyll, and hence prevent photooxidative stress.

Differential Roles of Carotenes and Xanthophylls in Photosystem I Photoprotection

Carotenes and their oxygenated derivatives, xanthophylls, are structural elements of the photosynthetic apparatus and contribute to increasing both the light-harvesting and photoprotective capacity of the photosystems. β-Carotene is present in both the core complexes and light-harvesting system (LHCI) of Photosystem (PS) I, while xanthophylls lutein and violaxanthin bind exclusively to its antenna moiety; another xanthophyll, zeaxanthin, which protects chloroplasts against photooxidative damage, binds to the LHCI complexes under conditions of excess light. We functionally dissected various components of the xanthophyll- and carotene-dependent photoprotection mechanism of PSI by analyzing two Arabidopsis mutants: szl1 plants, with a carotene content lower than that of the wild type, and npq1, with suppressed zeaxanthin formation. When exposed to excess light, the szl1 genotype displayed PSI photoinhibition stronger than that of wild-type plants, while removing zeaxanthin had no such effect. The PSI-LHCI complex purified from szl1 was more photosensitive than the corresponding wild-type and npq1 complexes, as is evident from its faster photobleaching and increased rate of singlet oxygen release, suggesting that β-carotene is crucial in controlling chlorophyll triplet formation. Accordingly, fluorescence-detected magnetic resonance analysis showed an increase in the amplitude of signals assigned to chlorophyll triplets in β-carotene-depleted complexes. When PSI was fractioned into its functional moieties, it was revealed that the boost in the rate of singlet oxygen release caused by β-carotene depletion was greater in LHCI than in the core complex. We conclude that PSI-LHCI complex-bound β-carotene elicits a protective response, consisting of a reduction in the yield of harmful triplet excited states, while accumulation of zeaxanthin plays a minor role in restoring phototolerance.

On the origin of a slowly reversible fluorescence decay component in the Arabidopsis npq4 mutant

Over-excitation of photosynthetic apparatus causing photoinhibition is counteracted by non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) of chlorophyll fluorescence, dissipating excess absorbed energy into heat. The PsbS protein plays a key role in this process, thus making the PsbS-less npq4 mutant unable to carry out qE, the major and most rapid component of NPQ. It was proposed that npq4 does perform qE-type quenching, although at lower rate than WT Arabidopsis. Here, we investigated the kinetics of NPQ in PsbS-depleted mutants of Arabidopsis. We show that red light was less effective than white light in decreasing maximal fluorescence in npq4 mutants. Also, the kinetics of fluorescence dark recovery included a decay component, qM, exhibiting the same amplitude and half-life in both WT and npq4 mutants. This component was uncoupler-sensitive and unaffected by photosystem II repair or mitochondrial ATP synthesis inhibitors. Targeted reverse genetic analysis showed that traits affecting composition of the photosynthetic apparatus, carotenoid biosynthesis and state transitions did not affect qM. This was depleted in the npq4phot2 mutant which is impaired in chloroplast photorelocation, implying that fluorescence decay, previously described as a quenching component in npq4 is, in fact, the result of decreased photon absorption caused by chloroplast relocation rather than a change in the activity of quenching reactions.

Quenching in Arabidopsis thaliana mutants lacking monomeric antenna proteins of photosystem II

The minor light-harvesting complexes CP24, CP26, and CP29 have been proposed to play a key role in the zeaxanthin (Zx)-dependent high light-induced regulation (NPQ) of excitation energy in higher plants. To characterize the detailed roles of these minor complexes in NPQ and to determine their specific quenching effects we have studied the ultrafast fluorescence kinetics in knockout (ko) mutants koCP26, koCP29, and the double mutant koCP24/CP26. The data provide detailed insight into the quenching processes and the reorganization of the Photosystem (PS) II supercomplex under quenching conditions. All genotypes showed two NPQ quenching sites. Quenching site Q1 is formed by a light-induced functional detachment of parts of the PSII supercomplex and a pronounced quenching of the detached antenna parts. The antenna remaining bound to the PSII core was also quenched substantially in all genotypes under NPQ conditions (quenching site Q2) as compared with the dark-adapted state. The latter quenching was about equally strong in koCP26 and the koCP24/CP26 mutants as in the WT. Q2 quenching was substantially reduced, however, in koCP29 mutants suggesting a key role for CP29 in the total NPQ. The observed quenching effects in the knockout mutants are complicated by the fact that other minor antenna complexes do compensate in part for the lack of the CP24 and/or CP29 complexes. Their lack also causes some LHCII dissociation already in the dark.

Reactive oxygen species and transcript analysis upon excess light treatment in wild-type Arabidopsis thaliana vs a photosensitive mutant lacking zeaxanthin and lutein

BACKGROUND

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are unavoidable by-products of oxygenic photosynthesis, causing progressive oxidative damage and ultimately cell death. Despite their destructive activity they are also signalling molecules, priming the acclimatory response to stress stimuli.

RESULTS

To investigate this role further, we exposed wild type Arabidopsis thaliana plants and the double mutant npq1lut2 to excess light. The mutant does not produce the xanthophylls lutein and zeaxanthin, whose key roles include ROS scavenging and prevention of ROS synthesis. Biochemical analysis revealed that singlet oxygen (1O2) accumulated to higher levels in the mutant while other ROS were unaffected, allowing to define the transcriptomic signature of the acclimatory response mediated by 1O2 which is enhanced by the lack of these xanthophylls species. The group of genes differentially regulated in npq1lut2 is enriched in sequences encoding chloroplast proteins involved in cell protection against the damaging effect of ROS. Among the early fine-tuned components, are proteins involved in tetrapyrrole biosynthesis, chlorophyll catabolism, protein import, folding and turnover, synthesis and membrane insertion of photosynthetic subunits. Up to now, the flu mutant was the only biological system adopted to define the regulation of gene expression by 1O2. In this work, we propose the use of mutants accumulating 1O2 by mechanisms different from those activated in flu to better identify ROS signalling.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose that the lack of zeaxanthin and lutein leads to 1O2 accumulation and this represents a signalling pathway in the early stages of stress acclimation, beside the response to ADP/ATP ratio and to the redox state of both plastoquinone pool. Chloroplasts respond to 1O2 accumulation by undergoing a significant change in composition and function towards a fast acclimatory response. The physiological implications of this signalling specificity are discussed.

Role of xanthophylls in light harvesting in green plants: a spectroscopic investigation of mutant LHCII and Lhcb pigment-protein complexes

The spectroscopic properties and energy transfer dynamics of the protein-bound chlorophylls and xanthophylls in monomeric, major LHCII complexes, and minor Lhcb complexes from genetically altered Arabidopsis thaliana plants have been investigated using both steady-state and time-resolved absorption and fluorescence spectroscopic methods. The pigment-protein complexes that were studied contain Chl a, Chl b, and variable amounts of the xanthophylls, zeaxanthin (Z), violaxanthin (V), neoxanthin (N), and lutein (L). The complexes were derived from mutants of plants denoted npq1 (NVL), npq2lut2 (Z), aba4npq1lut2 (V), aba4npq1 (VL), npq1lut2 (NV), and npq2 (LZ). The data reveal specific singlet energy transfer routes and excited state spectra and dynamics that depend on the xanthophyll present in the complex.

Improper excess light energy dissipation in Arabidopsis results in a metabolic reprogramming

BACKGROUND

Plant performance is affected by the level of expression of PsbS, a key photoprotective protein involved in the process of feedback de-excitation (FDE), or the qE component of non-photochemical quenching, NPQ.

RESULTS

In studies presented here, under constant laboratory conditions the metabolite profiles of leaves of wild-type Arabidopsis thaliana and plants lacking or overexpressing PsbS were very similar, but under natural conditions their differences in levels of PsbS expression were associated with major changes in metabolite profiles. Some carbohydrates and amino acids differed ten-fold in abundance between PsbS-lacking mutants and over-expressers, with wild-type plants having intermediate amounts, showing that a metabolic shift had occurred. The transcriptomes of the genotypes also varied under field conditions, and the genes induced in plants lacking PsbS were similar to those reportedly induced in plants exposed to ozone stress or treated with methyl jasmonate (MeJA). Genes involved in the biosynthesis of JA were up-regulated, and enzymes involved in this pathway accumulated. JA levels in the undamaged leaves of field-grown plants did not differ between wild-type and PsbS-lacking mutants, but they were higher in the mutants when they were exposed to herbivory.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that lack of FDE results in increased photooxidative stress in the chloroplasts of Arabidopsis plants grown in the field, which elicits a response at the transcriptome level, causing a redirection of metabolism from growth towards defence that resembles a MeJA/JA response.

Dynamics of zeaxanthin binding to the photosystem II monomeric antenna protein Lhcb6 (CP24) and modulation of its photoprotection properties

Lhcb6 (CP24) is a monomeric antenna protein of photosystem II, which has been shown to play special roles in photoprotective mechanisms, such as the Non-Photochemical Quenching and reorganization of grana membranes in excess light conditions. In this work we analyzed Lhcb6 in vivo and in vitro: we show this protein, upon activation of the xanthophyll cycle, accumulates zeaxanthin into inner binding sites faster and to a larger extent than any other pigment-protein complex. By comparative analysis of Lhcb6 complexes violaxanthin or zeaxanthin binding, we demonstrate that zeaxanthin not only down-regulates chlorophyll singlet excited states, but also increases the efficiency of chlorophyll triplet quenching, with consequent reduction of singlet oxygen production and significant enhancement of photo-stability. On these bases we propose that Lhcb6, the most recent addition to the Lhcb protein family which evolved concomitantly to the adaptation of photosynthesis to land environment, has a crucial role in zeaxanthin-dependent photoprotection.