Sex ratios in mule duck embryos at various stages of incubation

Mule duck hatcheries have long reported varying degrees of unbalance in the sex ratio, with a preponderance of male mules at hatching. The aim of the present study was to assess the distributions of sex ratios at various stages of development in embryos originating from intra- and intergeneric crosses between parental lineages (Muscovy male x Muscovy female, Pekin male x Pekin female, Muscovy male x Pekin female or Mule, and Pekin male x Muscovy female or Hinny). In Experiment I, embryo sexing was performed on Days 1 and 5 of incubation (by multiplex PCR) and at hatching (by vent observation). The sex ratio was not significantly modified during the early stages of embryo development whatever the genetic origin (P>0.05, Days 1 and Day 5) but our results in mule and hinny ducklings confirmed the preponderance of males among normally hatched ducklings originating from the intergeneric lineage (58.9 and 55.4% males in mules and hinnies, respectively; P<0.05 in both cases). Sex ratio (vent sexing) in second grade (cull) ducklings revealed that 68% of these ducklings were females (P<0.05). In Experiment II, the distribution of sex ratio was also performed in mule duck eggs from 6 batches (400,000 eggs/batch) first examined for fertility (candling) on Day 18 of incubation. These results indicate that the percentage of males present in the population of normally hatched ducklings increases when fertility decreases. In addition, this experiment also revealed that 83.7-90.5% of viable male mule embryos develop up to hatching, compared to only 43.0-51.0% of female mule embryos. Given that a deviation in sex ratio during the first stages of incubation is unlikely (Experiment I), it is concluded that the skewed sex ratio of mule ducks at hatching is primarily due to increased late mortality in female mule embryos occurring between egg transfer and hatching. This mortality originated, at least in part, from the intergeneric origin of female mules, and was marked to a greater or lesser extent depending on the initial success of fertilization in a given batch, a possible indication that the initial quality of gametes may selectively exert its influence at the later stages of embryo development.

Physiological responses of hens divergently selected on the number of chicks obtained from a single insemination

A series of experiments was conducted in domestic fowl to investigate the consequences of five generations of divergent selection for increased (L+) or decreased (L-) numbers of hatched chicks. After artificial insemination with pooled ejaculates within the same line (L+ males x L+ hens or L- males x L- hens), significant differences were observed between L+ and L- hens for mean fertility rates (L+ 94.8%, L- 70.2%, P < 0.0001) and for effective and maximum duration of fertility (P < 0.00001). A comparison of the overall laying performance and shell quality between the two selected lines showed that L- hens laid fewer eggs than L+ hens (P < 0.00001) and L- eggs had poorer shell quality (shell breaking strength) than L+ eggs (P < 0.00001). These observations were associated with significantly higher percentages of early embryo death in eggs from L- hens compared with L+ hens. Another series of experiments revealed the presence of larger initial populations of spermatozoa in the sperm storage tubules as well as in the perivitelline layer of eggs from L+ hens. The populations of spermatozoa in the sperm storage tubules of commercial laying hens inseminated with pooled semen samples from L+ males was compared with those in hens inseminated with samples from L- males to determine whether the variations in oviductal sperm storage between the two lines were male dependent. No significant differences between the populations of spermatozoa present in the sperm storage tubules of either group of hens could be detected at any of the intervals examined after insemination (days 1, 3 and 10). Finally, an experiment conducted on hens originating from the two selected lines indicated that the utero-vaginal junction of L+ hens contained significantly more sperm storage tubules compared with L- hens (P < 0.01). It is concluded that selection based on overall reproductive performance modifies the number of eggs capable of developing viable embryos and also influences the efficacy of initial sperm storage by increasing or altering the population of sperm storage tubules located in the utero-vaginal junction. Such changes have major consequences on the duration of the fertile period, which in avian species is directly dependent on both the actual population of spermatozoa stored in the oviduct and on their rate of release from the storage sites.