Phobic anxiety in 11 nations. Part I: Dimensional constancy of the five-factor model

The Fear Survey Schedule-III (FSS-III) was administered to a total of 5491 students in Australia, East Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Guatemala, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Spain, Sweden, and Venezuela, and submitted to the multiple group method of confirmatory analysis (MGM) in order to determine the cross-national dimensional constancy of the five-factor model of self-assessed fears originally established in Dutch, British, and Canadian samples. The model comprises fears of bodily injury-illness-death, agoraphobic fears, social fears, fears of sexual and aggressive scenes, and harmless animals fears. Close correspondence between the factors was demonstrated across national samples. In each country, the corresponding scales were internally consistent, were intercorrelated at magnitudes comparable to those yielded in the original samples, and yielded (in 93% of the total number of 55 comparisons) sex differences in line with the usual finding (higher scores for females). In each country, the relatively largest sex differences were obtained on harmless animals fears. The organization of self-assessed fears is sufficiently similar across nations to warrant the use of the same weight matrix (scoring key) for the FSS-III in the different countries and to make cross-national comparisons feasible. This opens the way to further studies that attempt to predict (on an a priori basis) cross-national variations in fear levels with dimensions of national cultures.

Inferences about predictable events: eye movements during reading

Eye fixations were recorded to assess whether, how, and when readers draw inferences about predictable events. Predicting context sentences, or non-predicting control sentences, were presented, followed by continuation sentences in which a target word referred to a predictable event (inferential word) or an unlikely event (non-predictable word). There were no effects on initial target word processing measures, such as launch and landing sites, fixation probability, first-fixation duration, or first-pass reading time. However, relative to the control condition, the predicting context (1) speeded up reanalysis of the inferential word, as revealed by a reduction in second-pass reading time and regressions, and (2) interfered with processing of the non-predictable word, as shown by an increase in regressions. These results indicate that predictive inferences are active at late text integration processes, rather than at early lexical-access processes. The pattern of findings suggests that these inferences involve initial activation of rather general concepts following the inducing context, and that they are completed or refined with delay, after the inferential target word is read.

Endothelin and nitric oxide levels in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with multiple sclerosis

In order to investigate the potential role of endothelins (ETs) and nitric oxide (NO) in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) we evaluated the levels of these vasoactive mediators in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of relapsing remitting MS patients and in a group of subjects with other neurological diseases (OND) and in a control group of subjects without neurological disease. Eighty patients affected from clinically diagnosed MS were selected, 44 of them were studied during an acute clinical attack and 36 in a stable phase. The OND group included 21 subjects affected by degenerative non inflammatory (n=9) and inflammatory (n=12) neurological disease while the control group included 22 subjects with cancer of the prostate (n=11) and with bladder disease (n=11). ET levels were significantly increased in CSF of relapsing remitting MS patients with an acute clinical attack in comparison with those in a stable phase, the OND group and the control group. Moreover significant differences were observed among the four groups with regard to the NO levels: MS patients in a stable and acute phase like OND group have high levels of NO compared to the control group. Since the blood-brain barrier index values did not differ significantly between the three groups, the data of this study suggest an important role for NO and ET in cerebral microcirculation in MS patients.

Molecular evidences for a role of HSV-1 in multiple sclerosis clinical acute attack

To verify the possible role of human herpesviruses as triggering or aggravating factors in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) clinical acute attack, we studied the prevalence of some herpesviruses in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) collected from 22 MS patients during an MS relapse and in a stable phase and from 18 healthy controls (HC). DNA belonging to Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2), Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and Human Herpes virus 6 (HHV-6) has been searched by specific nested polymerase chain reaction (n-PCR). EBV and HHV6 DNA has been detected with high frequency in acute and stable MS and in healthy controls without significant differences. HCMV DNA was observed both in acute and stable MS but not in HC, and, more interestingly, HSV-1 DNA was only found in 13% of acute MS, while both stable MS and healthy controls were negative. On the basis of these results we focused on HSV-1, and to confirm them and to demonstrate that HSV-1 is actively replicating in MS patients during clinical relapse, we searched both messenger RNA (mRNA) and DNA of HSV-1 in the PBMCs of 15 acute MS patients and 15 healthy controls. We found HSV-1 mRNA and DNA in a significant number of acute MS patients but not in the control group. On the whole these data indicate that HSV-1 reactivate in the peripheral blood of MS patients during clinical acute attack and probably play a role in the triggering of MS relapses.

Serum auto antibodies presence in multiple sclerosis patients treated with beta-interferon 1a and 1b

To verify the possible effect of IFN-beta treatment on auto antibodies development in multiple sclerosis (MS) we studied 69 MS patients before and during the treatment with IFN-beta 1b (n=35) and IFN-beta 1a (n=20) for 27 and 12 months respectively, and, as controls, 14 untreated MS patients. The serum, collected every 3 months from all the patients, was investigated for the presence of antinuclear (ANA), anti-smooth muscle (ASMA), anti-mitochondrial (AMA), anti-native DNA (nDNA) anti-cardiolipin (aCL), anti-parietal cells (APCA), anti-microsomal (AMC) and anti-tireoglobulin (ATG) antibodies. Among the IFN-beta 1b-treated MS patients an increase of the frequency and of the level of ANA, AMC and ATG was observed. ASMA and ANA antibodies were already present in about 45% of the MS patients before the treatment and fluctuated over the time. In one patient the treatment was interrupted after 6 months because of the occurrence of high ASMA level and of an autoimmune hepatitis. The data obtained in the smaller number of MS patients treated with IFN-beta 1a were very similar. No increase in aCL level was observed during both the IFN treatments. Our results indicate that the treatment with IFN-beta induces an increase of AMC and ATG antibodies in MS patients and confirm that, although rare, autoimmune diseases could be observed. The possible effect of these auto antibodies on the treatment efficacy and on MS clinical course need to be further investigated.

A polymorphism in the repetitive (TGGA)n sequence 5' to the human myelin basic protein gene in Italian multiple sclerosis patients

Human myelin basic protein (hMBP) gene is one of the candidate genes in the complex mosaic of multiple sclerosis (MS) susceptibility. In this study we verified the distribution of the polymorphism of the region 5' flanking the first exon of the hMBP gene, in 97 relapsing remitting, 74 primary progressive Italian MS patients, and in 236 healthy controls, using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and gel electrophoresis analysis in this region from 1116 - 1540 nt. Three different band patterns were observed: one homozygote with a 354 bp long fragment, one homozygote with 424 bp long fragment and one heterozygote with both bands present. The short fragment was statistically more frequent in RRMS patients than in HC (P<0.05). The long fragment was more present in HC. Similarly the short homozygous pattern (354 bp/354 bp) was significantly higher in the RRMS patients versus the healthy controls (P<0.01). The sequence analysis of the hMBP alleles showed that while the long fragments matched the prototype sequence completely, all the short fragments showed a deletion of 70 bp from nt 1177 to nt 1247, which explains the short 354 bp allele detected by PCR. Moreover two single mismatches in positions 1386 (T-->C) and 1431 (G-->A), were present only in the short hMBP fragment.

Working memory capacity and time course of predictive inferences

A naming task assessed activation of inference concepts during reading. A predicting, or a control, context sentence was followed by a target word to be named, which represented the predicted event or an inconsistent event. The interval between the end of the context and the onset of the target word varied between 50 and 1050 msec. Individual differences in working memory capacity were assessed by the reading span task. As reflected by facilitation in naming latencies in the predicting condition, relative to the control condition, (a) inferences were not made within the first 50 msec after the context, regardless of reading span; (b) only the high-span participants drew inferences within a 550-msec interval; and, (c) both the high- and the low-span participants generated them within a 1050-msec interval. These results indicate that high working memory capacity accelerates the time course of predictive inferences, although they do not become automatic. We propose that this effect occurs because these inferences involve time-consuming elaborations that place demands on the effortful and limited resources of working memory. Deficiencies in word knowledge, speed of lexical access, or comprehension of explicit information do not account for low-span readers' difficulties in generating predictive inferences.

On-line predictive inferences in reading: processing time during versus after the priming context

Prior research suggests that predictive inferences take time to construct on-line. The present study examines the relative contribution of time available during and after reading an inducing context. In six experiments, we manipulated the presentation rate of the context and the delay between the onset of the last word in the context and a target word. A predicting, or a control, sentence context was followed by a target word, which represented the predicted event or an unlikely event. The results indicated that increasing the time available during reading of the context improved comprehension of explicit information, but it did not affect construction of inferences. In contrast, increasing the delay at the end of the context did not affect explicit comprehension, but it enhanced the probability of inferences, as revealed by shorter latencies in naming the predictable target word after the inducing context, relative to the control context. These findings show that readers defer making predictive inferences until 1 sec after the sentence context has been read, regardless of the time available when they are processing the context.

Increased levels of CD8+ and CD4+ 45RA+ lymphocytes in schizophrenic patients

Peripheral blood (PB) lymphocyte subpopulations, IgG, IgM, IgA and IgE serum immunoglobulins and C3 and C4 complement fractions were evaluated in 29 schizophrenic patients, 31 of their relatives and 20 healthy subjects. The patients fulfilled DSM-III criteria for schizophrenia, and were unmedicated for 3 months prior to the PB sample collection. When compared to healthy controls and their own relatives, the schizophrenic patients showed a lower level of CD4+ cells, while the CD4+ 45RA+ (naive) subset was significantly higher. Conversely, the number of CD4+ 45RA- (memory) lymphocytes was significantly lower in schizophrenic patients in comparison to their relatives and controls, while the CD8+ supressor/cytotoxic T-cell percentage was significantly higher. No significant differences were observed for the IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE and C3 and C4 complement fraction levels among the three groups. The present data confirm the presence of immunological abnormalities in schizophrenic patients and suggest a possible role of environmental factors in the triggering of an autoimmune pathogenic mechanism.

Phonological working memory and reading in test anxiety

Texts were presented sentence by sentence (Experiment 1) or word by word (Experiment 2) at a fixed rate to subjects high or low in test anxiety, under various conditions: no interference, concurrent articulatory suppression, and concurrent irrelevant speech (presented auditorily). High-anxiety subjects produced overt articulation more frequently than low-anxiety subjects, especially in the irrelevant speech condition. The most salient finding was an interaction between anxiety and interference on comprehension performance: under word-by-word-but not under sentence-by-sentence-presentation, anxious subjects showed poorer comprehension than non-anxious subjects in both conditions known to interfere with the articulatory loop (i.e. articulatory suppression, and irrelevant speech), but equivalent comprehension in the no interference condition. These findings suggest (a) that the articulatory loop has a special compensatory role for anxious individuals in reading comprehension, and (b) that the importance of this auxiliary mechanism is enhanced when other strategies, such as regressive fixations and control of reading speed, cannot be used.

Selective influence of test anxiety on reading processes

The aim of this research is to explore whether comprehension is impaired by test anxiety, whether the anxious person spends compensatory reading time, and which cognitive processes are affected. High- and low-anxiety students read texts word by word with the moving-window technique under test conditions. Multiple regression analyses on word-reading times were computed with a number of psycholinguistic variables--assumed to map onto specific processes--serving as predictors. Results indicated that anxiety did not impair comprehension, but increased word-reading times, which were affected interactively by anxiety and specific psycholinguistic variables (end of clause, serial position within the text, narrativity, and summary). These data reveal that anxious readers need to employ a greater amount of processing resources than their non-anxious counterparts to obtain a similar comprehension level. Furthermore, the interactive effects suggest that anxiety is selectively detrimental to the efficiency of text-level processes, such as those involved in integrating information across sentences. In contrast, anxiety does not impair low-level processes, such as encoding and lexical access.

Popliteal artery entrapment syndrome

Three cases of popliteal artery entrapment syndrome, one of them bilateral, are presented with a review of the literature, with special reference to the embryological development of the popliteal space and the diagnostic and therapeutic problems presented by this syndrome.