Pregnancy-promoting actions of HCG in human myometrium and fetal membranes

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) plays a major role in early human development through a series of well recognized pregnancy-promoting actions that are exerted in the first trimester, including maternal recognition of pregnancy, enhancement of embryo implantation and survival, stimulation of trophoblast growth and differentiation, and prolongation of the functional life of the corpus luteum. Recent research indicates that HCG can exert significant pregnancy-promoting actions also in the remainder of pregnancy through its effect on the myometrium and on fetal membranes. In the myometrium, HCG promotes the inhibition of smooth muscle cell contractility through several mechanisms, including inhibition of gap junction formation, reduction of intracellular calcium concentration, increase in the expression of progesterone receptor, and an increase in the expression of phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5), an enzyme controlling the intracellular levels of cGMP. This effect appears to be specific for PDE5 since it has not been found for other hormones potentially involved in pregnancy such as estrogen, progesterone and thyroid hormone. In fetal membranes, HCG can modulate expression of the inducible isoform of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), as well as specific immunoregulatory cytokines such as the high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein. This accumulating evidence suggests that HCG has a wide spread pregnancy-promoting actions that are exerted in various reproductive and gestational tissues.

Oxytocin Modulates Nitric Oxide Generation by Human Fetal Membranes at Term Pregnancy

PROBLEM

Nitric oxide (NO), an important mediator of the inflammatory response, is involved in several reproductive processes including pregnancy and labor. Uterus, placenta and fetal membranes are significant sources of NO. Presently, there is no information on factors regulating NO production by fetal membranes.

METHOD OF STUDY

Human fetal membranes at term gestation were cultured for 24 hr in the presence of oxytocin. The concentrations of NO metabolites nitrites in culture medium were determined by the Griess reaction. The presence of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) was determined by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and Western blot.

RESULTS

Oxytocin increased nitrite release by fetal membranes. Messenger ribonucleic acid iNOS expression was also enhanced by oxytocin. These effects were more marked in tissues obtained after labor than before labor.

CONCLUSIONS

Oxytocin exerts an overall stimulatory effect on NO release by fetal membranes. This action might be of relevance in the biomolecular processes leading to parturition.

Hormonal regulation of cytokine release by human fetal membranes at term gestation: effects of oxytocin, hydrocortisone and progesterone on tumour necrosis factor-alpha and transforming growth factor-beta 1 output

Inflammatory cytokines can play an important role in the biomolecular processes leading to labour by regulating prostaglandin production in intrauterine tissues. In the setting of intrauterine infection, an increased production of these cytokines by placenta, decidua and fetal membranes occurs and is responsible for the onset and maintenance of preterm labour. However, the factors involved in the control of cytokine release by these tissues in normal pregnancy at term are still largely unknown. We investigated the possibility that the synthesis and release of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) by human fetal membranes at term gestation is regulated by several hormones potentially involved either in the maintenance of pregnancy or in the parturitional process. In the present study, the effects of hydrocortisone, progesterone and oxytocin on TNF-alpha and TGF-beta1 release by explants of fetal membranes at term gestation were evaluated. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was used to assess the effect of the above hormones on mRNA expression; TNF-alpha and TGF-beta1 release in culture medium was quantitifed by ELISA assays. Results show that both tissue mRNA expression for TNF-alpha and TNF-alpha release in culture medium were significantly increased by oxytocin, but not by hydrocortisone and progesterone. On the contrary, all the hormones tested increased both tissue TGF-beta1 mRNA expression and release in culture medium. These findings suggest that TNF-alpha and TGF-beta1 production by human fetal membranes in uncomplicated pregnancy at term is selectively modulated by oxytocin, hydrocortisone and progesterone.

Th2 cytokines have a partial, direct protective effect on the function and survival of isolated human islets exposed to combined proinflammatory and Th1 cytokines

Studies in rodents have suggested that Th2 and Th3 cytokines can be effective in reducing proinflammatory and Th1 cytokine-induced islet damage. Whether this is the case with human islets and might be due to a direct action of Th2 and Th3 cytokines is not known. In the present study, we evaluated whether Th2 (500 U/ml IL-4 plus 100 U/ml IL-10) or Th3 (5 ng/ml TGF-1beta) cytokines may prevent the derangements induced on isolated human islets by prolonged (12 or 72 h) exposure to combined proinflammatory (50 U/ml IL-1beta, 1000 U/ml TNF alpha) and Th1 (1000 U/ml interferon gamma) cytokines. Compared with control islets, cells preincubated for 12 or 72 h with proinflammatory and Th1 cytokines showed a significant decrease of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and a significant increase of nitrites production. The addition of IL-4 plus IL-10 or TGF-1beta in the medium prevented these cytostatic effects in the 12-h incubation experiments, but not after the 72-h exposure period. IL-1beta, interferon gamma, and TNF alpha caused no major change in either islet cell survival or Bcl-2 and Bax mRNA expression after a 12-h incubation; however, a marked increase in the amount of dead cells, with a major decrease of Bcl-2 mRNA expression, was observed after 72 h. The presence of Th2, but not of Th3, cytokines significantly reduced beta-cell death, without any major effect on Bcl-2 and Bax mRNA expression. These results suggest that Th2 and (at lower extent) Th3 cytokines may have a partial, direct protective effect on isolated human islets exposed to the cytostatic and cytotoxic action of proinflammatory and Th1 cytokines.

Effects of long-term treatment with the anti-androgen bicalutamide on human testis: an ultrastructural and morphometric study

AIMS

To assess the effects of more than 4 years' treatment with the anti-androgen bicalutamide on human testis by clinical, ultrastructural and morphometric analysis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Two patients (aged 74 and 69 years) with prostate cancer were treated for more than 4 years with bicalutamide 50 mg daily. Clinical characterization and follow-up included luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), testosterone and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) measurements and clinical response of the tumours. Due to progression of the disease, patients underwent surgical orchidectomy as a further androgen withdrawal therapy. Testis biopsies were studied by light and electron microscopy and analysed by morphometry. Control samples were obtained from the normal testis of two patients with testicular cancer who underwent orchidectomy. Clinical follow-up showed a good response in the control of tumour growth and serum PSA decreased to < 4 ng/mL; concentrations of serum LH, FSH and testosterone were within the normal range. Testicular morphology of treated patients was unexpectedly well preserved; the organization of seminiferous tubules was normal with all the germ line elements and mature spermatozoa present. In some areas, a net increase of peritubular connective tissue was evident which may be a consequence of the age of the patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Long-term bicalutamide (50 mg) treatment appears to have very little impact on testis ultrastructure and sperm maturation, while it is effective in the control of androgen-dependent prostatic tumours.

Bovine islets are less susceptible than human islets to damage by human cytokines

BACKGROUND

The potential benefits of islet xenografting in type 1 diabetes include the intriguing, but still unanswered, possibility that the grafted xenoislets may be less subjected to human autoimmune attack. Cytokines may play a major role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diabetes by causing impairment of insulin release and pancreatic islet cell toxicity.

METHODS

We compared insulin secretion, islet cell death and survival, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) mRNA expression, nitrite production, and Bcl-2 and Bax mRNA expression in isolated human and large mammal (bovine) islets exposed to 50 U/ml recombinant human interleukin-1, 1,000 U/ml recombinant human tumor necrosis factor-alpha and 1,000 U/ml recombinant human interferon-gamma.

RESULTS

After 24-hr exposure, a marked decrease of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion was observed with human, but not with bovine islets. After 48-hr exposure, human, but not bovine, pancreatic islets showed a significantly higher percentage of apoptotic cells compared to controls. Treatment of human islets with human cytokines induced up-regulation of iNOS mRNA, increased levels of nitrites, and down-regulation of Bcl-2 mRNA, with unchanged levels of Bax mRNA. These parameters were not affected by cytokines in bovine islets.

CONCLUSIONS

Bovine islets are less susceptible than human islets to the effects of human cytokines, which may be a potential advantage of xenotransplantation.

Effects of prolonged exposure to pancreatic glucagon on the function, antigenicity and survival of isolated human islets

BACKGROUND

Certain clinical conditions are associated with inappropriately high levels of circulating glucagon. To date, little information is available about the direct effects of prolonged exposure of human islet cells to pancreatic glucagon. In the present study we evaluated the function, antigenicity and survival of human islets exposed for 24 h to human pancreatic glucagon.

METHODS

We prepared human islets of Langerhans by collagenase digestion and density-gradient purification, incubated them for 24 h with 44 or 430 pmol/l pancreatic glucagon at physiological (5.5 mmol/l) glucose level, and evaluated their insulin release function, which was then compared with that obtained from islets kept at high (11.1 mmol/l) glucose concentration. In addition, aliquots of the islets were evaluated to assess their chemotactic properties towards human monocyte-macrophage cells, and their potency to induce cytokine release from human lymphocytes. Finally, survival of the islet cells cultured under varying conditions was evaluated, and an assessment was performed of mRNA expression of Bcl-2 and Bax proteins.

RESULTS

The insulin secretion results demonstrated that, compared to the control islets, the islets previously exposed to either 44 or 430 pmol/l glucagon exhibited changes in insulin release in response to glucose, consisting of augmented secretion at low glucose challenge, and no further significant increase at high glucose stimulation, similar to the effects observed with islets pre-cultured with high glucose. These effects were reversible, as documented by the recovery of normal islet sensitivity to glucose after an additional 24-h culture in medium lacking glucagon. Compared to control islets, the culture medium from islets pre-cultured with high glucagon or high glucose showed an increased chemotactic potency towards human monocyte-macrophage cells. In addition, human lymphocytes released a greater amount of tumour necrosis factor alpha when co-cultured with the islets pre-exposed to high glucagon or high glucose, whereas no significant difference was observed (in comparison with control islets) as regards the release of gamma-interferon, interleukin-2 and interleukin-10. The TUNEL technique and RT-PCR showed, respectively, no major difference in cell survival and expression of mRNA encoding for Bcl-2 and Bax protein between control islets and islets kept for 24 h in the presence of high glucagon or high glucose.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show that in vitro exposure of human islets to pancreatic glucagon for 24 h causes changes in the function and antigenicity of isolated human islets that are similar to the changes observed after pre-culture with increased glucose levels. Under our experimental conditions, these changes were not accompanied by any evidence of cytotoxicity.

Nitric oxide synthases in normal and benign hyperplastic human prostate: immunohistochemistry and molecular biology

The expression of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) isoforms has been investigated in normal (three subjects) and benign hyperplastic prostate (ten patients) by immunohistochemistry and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The inducible NOS (iNOS or NOS-2) is not detected in normal prostate, while it is expressed in the prostate of all benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) patients, even in the absence of prostatitis or systemic signs of an inflammatory condition. This suggests that sex hormones may be involved in iNOS induction and that there may be a role for NO in the pathogenesis of BPH. Constitutive NOSs (nNOS and eNOS) are expressed in both normal and hyperplastic prostate and are co-expressed in epithelial cells. eNOS, however, is present mainly in the basal layer cells; nNOS seems abundantly expressed in the more superficial cells of the affected prostate. This indicates that the switching between the two constitutive isoforms may be part of the usual process of cell differentiation from the basal to the secretory layer of the epithelium.

Expression of p53 and retinoblastoma gene in high-grade nodal peripheral T-cell lymphomas: immunohistochemical and molecular findings suggesting different pathogenetic pathways and possible clinical implications

The expression of p53 and the retinoblastoma gene has been investigated by immunohistochemical and molecular analysis in 45 cases of nodal peripheral T-cell lymphoma with high-grade histology. Most cases (73.3 per cent) were primary nodal lymphomas without any extra-nodal site involvement. Most of them (75.6 per cent) were histologically classified as pleomorphic, small, medium, and large cell type. Immunohistochemistry detected p53 in nine cases (20 per cent). In each of these cases, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)/heteroduplex analysis did not show the presence of mutations, this finding being consistent with an alteration of the p53 functional pathway, in the presence of a wild-type protein. The retinoblastoma gene product was detected by immunohistochemistry in 35 cases (77.8 per cent) and not detected in ten cases (22.2 per cent). In the latter cases, the reverse transcription (RT)-PCR analysis showed the presence of a specific retinoblastoma gene transcript in six cases and was negative in the remaining four cases. The immunohistochemical and molecular findings seem to be consistent with abnormalities of retinoblastoma gene expression at either the transcriptional or the post-transcriptional level. Since all nine p53-positive cases by immunohistochemical analysis were also retinoblastoma gene product-positive, and all ten retinoblastoma gene product-negative cases were also p53-negative, two different and mutually exclusive pathways of possible pathogenetic significance may be suggested, the former involving abnormalities of the functional pathway of p53 in the absence of mutations and the latter abnormalities of retinoblastoma gene expression at the transcriptional and/or post-transcriptional level. Finally, the clinico-pathological correlations showed that p53 immunohistochemical expression is significantly associated with a poorer response to intensive chemotherapy.

Involvement of bcl-2 and bax gene expression in apoptosis and differentiation of the non-tumorigenic murine hematopoietic cell line, 32DC13(G)

32DCl3(G) is an interleukin-3 (IL-3) dependent, non-tumorigenic murine hematopoietic cell line which undergoes terminal differentiation into granulocytes when exposed to granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF). This line therefore offers a convenient system to study the expression of genes involved in apoptosis and differentiation. In our experiments we have acquired evidence that during the differentiation pathway, likewise in apoptosis induced by IL-3 deprivation, detectable levels of bax mRNA appear, while bcl-2 expression decreases. These events are under the control of the p53 tumor-suppressor gene. In these cells, an overexpression of exogenous wild-type p53 leads to a decrease in bcl-2 mRNA and to the appearance of box mRNA, which instead is absent in the parental cells growing in IL-3 conditioned medium. Furthermore, results from experiments on p53 transfected cells demonstrate that excess wild-type p53 activity, on its own, fails to elicit apoptosis as long as IL-3 is present and does not induce differentiation if G-CSF is not added to the culture medium. We conclude that in apoptosis and differentiation of 32DCl3(G) the alterate ratio of bcl-2 and box gene expression, modulated by p53, is an early event dependent on IL-3 withdrawal and that the appearance of bax and the decrease of bcl-2 expression are necessary, but not sufficient for the acquisition of a completely mature granulocytic phenotype.

The hemopoietic progenitor 32DCl3(G) cells synthesize C3 molecules and acquire C3b acceptor sites upon differentiation or neoplastic transformation

32DCl3(G) cells are a diploid, nontumorigenic, IL-3-dependent hemopoietic progenitor cell line, which undergoes terminal differentiation into neutrophilic granulocytes when cultured in presence of G-CSF. The infection with BALB-Moloney murine sarcoma virus, containing a v-HA-ras oncogene, renders this cell line IL-3 independent and continuously growing in the presence of G-CSF, nontumorigenic and with an apparent block at the level of promyelocyte/myelocyte (32D-Ha-ras). After infection with Abelson murine leukemia virus containing a v-abl oncogene, the cell line originates (32D-abl) that is also IL-3 independent but is tumorigenic and unable to differentiate in the presence of G-CSF. This cellular model allowed us to study the relationship between distinct steps of cell differentiation, neoplastic transformation, and C3 synthesis, activation, and characteristics of binding. We demonstrated that C3 synthesis, release, and cleavage are properties already present in the progenitor 32DCl3(G) cells. The more differentiated 32D-Ha-ras cells acquired C3 acceptor sites, apparently completely saturated by the constitutively released molecules. The transformation with Abelson murine leukemia virus, although it did not affect all these properties, let the cells bind considerable amounts of C3-related fragments activated in normal murine serum through the alternative pathway. This last event was a result of the acquisition of PMSF-sensitive serine proteases associated with the plasma membrane.

The hemopoietic progenitor 32DCl3(G) cells synthesize C3 molecules and acquire C3b acceptor sites upon differentiation or neoplastic transformation

32DCl3(G) cells are a diploid, nontumorigenic, IL-3-dependent hemopoietic progenitor cell line, which undergoes terminal differentiation into neutrophilic granulocytes when cultured in presence of G-CSF. The infection with BALB-Moloney murine sarcoma virus, containing a v-HA-ras oncogene, renders this cell line IL-3 independent and continuously growing in the presence of G-CSF, nontumorigenic and with an apparent block at the level of promyelocyte/myelocyte (32D-Ha-ras). After infection with Abelson murine leukemia virus containing a v-abl oncogene, the cell line originates (32D-abl) that is also IL-3 independent but is tumorigenic and unable to differentiate in the presence of G-CSF. This cellular model allowed us to study the relationship between distinct steps of cell differentiation, neoplastic transformation, and C3 synthesis, activation, and characteristics of binding. We demonstrated that C3 synthesis, release, and cleavage are properties already present in the progenitor 32DCl3(G) cells. The more differentiated 32D-Ha-ras cells acquired C3 acceptor sites, apparently completely saturated by the constitutively released molecules. The transformation with Abelson murine leukemia virus, although it did not affect all these properties, let the cells bind considerable amounts of C3-related fragments activated in normal murine serum through the alternative pathway. This last event was a result of the acquisition of PMSF-sensitive serine proteases associated with the plasma membrane.