The muscle regulatory factors MyoD and myf-5 undergo distinct cell cycle-specific expression in muscle cells

The muscle regulators MyoD and Myf-5 control cell cycle withdrawal and induction of differentiation in skeletal muscle cells. By immunofluorescence analysis, we show that MyoD and Myf-5 expression patterns become mutually exclusive when C2 cells are induced to differentiate with Myf-5 staining present in cells which fail to differentiate. Isolation of these undifferentiated cells reveals that upon serum stimulation they reenter the cell cycle, express MyoD and downregulate Myf-5. Similar regulations of MyoD and Myf-5 were observed using cultured primary myoblasts derived from satellite cells. To further analyze these regulations of MyoD and Myf-5 expression, we synchronized proliferating myoblasts. Analysis of MyoD and Myf-5 expression during cell cycle progression revealed distinct and contrasting profiles of expression. MyoD is absent in G0, peaks in mid-G1, falls to its minimum level at G1/S and reaugments from S to M. In contrast, Myf-5 protein is high in G0, decreases during G1 and reappears at the end of G1 to remain stable until mitosis. These data demonstrate that the two myogenic factors MyoD and Myf-5 undergo specific and distinct cell cycle-dependent regulation, thus establishing a correlation between the cell cycle-specific ratios of MyoD and Myf-5 and the capacity of cells to differentiate: (a) in G1, when cells express high levels of MyoD and enter differentiation; (b) in G0, when cells express high levels of Myf-5 and fail to differentiate.

Crosstalk between cell cycle regulators and the myogenic factor MyoD in skeletal myoblasts

During the early process of skeletal muscle differentiation, myogenic factors are not only involved in muscle-specific gene induction but also in regulating the transition from the proliferative stage, when MyoD and Myf5 are already expressed, to the orderly exit from the cell division cycle. This key step in skeletal muscle differentiation involves the down-regulation of cell cycle activators such as cyclins and cdks, and up-regulation of cell cycle inhibitors such as Rb, p21, p27, and p57. In particular, Rb and p21 have been shown to play an important role in the growth arrest of differentiating myoblasts. Their level and/or activity, while being negatively controlled by growth factors, appear to be positively linked with the myogenic factor MyoD, which plays a cooperative role in the induction of growth arrest. MyoD can block proliferation independently of its transcriptional activity. Therefore, the interplay between G1 cyclins and cdk inhibitors, on the one hand, and MyoD and its co-factors, on the other, plays a critical role in myoblast cell cycle withdrawal. Accurate synchronization of dividing myoblasts revealed that MyoD and Myf5 are themselves subject to specific cell cycle-dependent regulation, with MyoD at its highest level in early G1 and its lowest level at the G1 to S phase transition. The time-window when cells exit their cycle into differentiation is in G1, when MyoD is maximal and Myf5 is down. In contrast, quiescent non-differentiating myoblasts (i. e., in G0) present an opposite pattern for the two factors: high Myf5 and no MyoD. Several recent studies have focused on MyoD phosphorylation and its potential role in ubiquitination-mediated degradation of the protein. Linking this phosphorylation to the cell cycle-dependent drop in MyoD protein before S phase leads, to a mechanism implying cdk2-cyclin E and its inhibitors (p57kip and p21cip) in the tight control of MyoD levels and subsequent myoblast cell cycle progression or exit into differentiation.

Modulation of L-type calcium channel expression during retinoic acid-induced differentiation of H9C2 cardiac cells

The molecular mechanisms underlying the developmental regulation of L-type voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channels (VDCCs) are still unknown. In this study, we have characterized the expression patterns of skeletal (alpha(1S)) and cardiac (alpha(1C)) L-type VDCCs during cardiogenic differentiation in H9C2 cells that derived from embryonic rat heart. We report that chronic treatment of H9C2 cells with 10 nM all-trans-retinoic acid (all-trans-RA) enhanced cardiac Ca(2+) channel expression, as demonstrated by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, immunoblotting, and indirect immunofluorescence studies, as well as patch-clamp experiments. In addition, RA treatment prevented expression of functional skeletal L-type VDCCs, which were restricted to myotubes that spontaneously appear in control H9C2 cultures undergoing myogenic transdifferentiation. The use of specific skeletal and cardiac markers indicated that RA, by preventing myogenic transdifferentiation, preserves cardiac differentiation of this cell line. Altogether, we provide evidence that cardiac and skeletal subtype-specific L-type Ca(2+) channels are relevant functional markers of differentiated cardiac and skeletal myocytes, respectively. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that in vitro RA stimulates cardiac (alpha(1C)) L-type Ca(2+) channel expression, therefore supporting the hypothesis that the RA pathway might be involved in the tissue specific expression of Ca(2+) channels in mature cardiac cells.

RhoA GTPase and serum response factor control selectively the expression of MyoD without affecting Myf5 in mouse myoblasts

MyoD and Myf5 belong to the family of basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors that are key operators in skeletal muscle differentiation. MyoD and Myf5 genes are selectively activated during development in a time and region-specific manner and in response to different stimuli. However, molecules that specifically regulate the expression of these two genes and the pathways involved remain to be determined. We have recently shown that the serum response factor (SRF), a transcription factor involved in activation of both mitogenic response and muscle differentiation, is required for MyoD gene expression. We have investigated here whether SRF is also involved in the control of Myf5 gene expression, and the potential role of upstream regulators of SRF activity, the Rho family G-proteins including Rho, Rac, and CDC42, in the regulation of MyoD and Myf5. We show that inactivation of SRF does not alter Myf5 gene expression, whereas it causes a rapid extinction of MyoD gene expression. Furthermore, we show that RhoA, but not Rac or CDC42, is also required for the expression of MyoD. Indeed, blocking the activity of G-proteins using the general inhibitor lovastatin, or more specific antagonists of Rho proteins such as C3-transferase or dominant negative RhoA protein, resulted in a dramatic decrease of MyoD protein levels and promoter activity without any effects on Myf5 expression. We further show that RhoA-dependent transcriptional activation required functional SRF in C2 muscle cells. These data illustrate that MyoD and Myf5 are regulated by different upstream activation pathways in which MyoD expression is specifically modulated by a RhoA/SRF signaling cascade. In addition, our results establish the first link between RhoA protein activity and the expression of a key muscle regulator.

cdk1- and cdk2-mediated phosphorylation of MyoD Ser200 in growing C2 myoblasts: role in modulating MyoD half-life and myogenic activity

We have examined the role of protein phosphorylation in the modulation of the key muscle-specific transcription factor MyoD. We show that MyoD is highly phosphorylated in growing myoblasts and undergoes substantial dephosphorylation during differentiation. MyoD can be efficiently phosphorylated in vitro by either purified cdk1-cyclin B or cdk1 and cdk2 immunoprecipitated from proliferative myoblasts. Comparative two-dimensional tryptic phosphopeptide mapping combined with site-directed mutagenesis revealed that cdk1 and cdk2 phosphorylate MyoD on serine 200 in proliferative myoblasts. In addition, when the seven proline-directed sites in MyoD were individually mutated, only substitution of serine 200 to a nonphosphorylatable alanine (MyoD-Ala200) abolished the slower-migrating hyperphosphorylated form of MyoD, seen either in vitro after phosphorylation by cdk1-cyclin B or in vivo following overexpression in 10T1/2 cells. The MyoD-Ala200 mutant displayed activity threefold higher than that of wild-type MyoD in transactivation of an E-box-dependent reporter gene and promoted markedly enhanced myogenic conversion and fusion of 10T1/2 fibroblasts into muscle cells. In addition, the half-life of MyoD-Ala200 protein was longer than that of wild-type MyoD, substantiating a role of Ser200 phosphorylation in regulating MyoD turnover in proliferative myoblasts. Taken together, our data show that direct phosphorylation of MyoD Ser200 by cdk1 and cdk2 plays an integral role in compromising MyoD activity during myoblast proliferation.

Cyclin dependent kinase 5, cdk5, is a positive regulator of myogenesis in mouse C2 cells

We have examined the expression, activity and localization of cyclin dependent kinase 5 (cdk5), during myogenesis. Cdk5 protein was found expressed in adult mouse muscle. In murine C2 cells, both the protein level and kinase activity of cdk5 showed a marked increase during early myogenesis with a peak between 36 and 48 hours of differentiation, decreasing as myotubes fuse after 60 to 72 hours. This increase in cdk5 protein level was specific for differentiation and not simply related to cell cycle arrest since it was not observed in fibroblasts grown for 48 hours in low serum medium. Indirect immunofluorescence using monospecific purified anti-cdk5 antibodies showed a low level cytoplasmic staining in proliferative myoblasts, a rapid increase in nuclear staining during the initial 12 hours of differentiation and a predominant nuclear staining in myotubes. Microinjection of plasmids encoding wild-type cdk5 into C2 myoblasts enhanced differentiation as assessed by both myogenin and troponin T expression after 48 hours of differentiation. In contrast, microinjection of plasmids encoding a dominant negative mutant of cdk5 inhibited the onset of differentiation. These data imply a previously unsuspected role for cdk5 protein kinase as a positive modulator of early myogenesis.

Intramyocellular lipid accumulation is associated with permanent relocation ex vivo and in vitro of fatty acid translocase (FAT)/CD36 in obese patients

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Intramyocellular lipids (IMCL) accumulation is a classical feature of metabolic diseases. We hypothesised that IMCL accumulate mainly as a consequence of increased adiposity and independently of type 2 diabetes. To test this, we examined IMCL accumulation in two different models and four different populations of participants: muscle biopsies and primary human muscle cells derived from non-obese and obese participants with or without type 2 diabetes. The mechanism regulating IMCL accumulation was also studied.

METHODS

Muscle biopsies were obtained from ten non-obese and seven obese participants without type 2 diabetes, and from eight non-obese and eight obese type 2 diabetic patients. Mitochondrial respiration, citrate synthase activity and both AMP-activated protein kinase and acetyl-CoA carboxylase phosphorylation were measured in muscle tissue. Lipid accumulation in muscle and primary myotubes was estimated by Oil Red O staining and fatty acid translocase (FAT)/CD36 localisation by immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

Obesity and type 2 diabetes are independently characterised by skeletal muscle IMCL accumulation and permanent FAT/CD36 relocation. Mitochondrial function is not reduced in type 2 diabetes. IMCL accumulation was independent of type 2 diabetes in cultured myotubes and was correlated with obesity markers of the donor. In obese participants, membrane relocation of FAT/CD36 is a determinant of IMCL accumulation.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

In skeletal muscle, mitochondrial function is normal in type 2 diabetes, while IMCL accumulation is dependent upon obesity or type 2 diabetes and is related to sarcolemmal FAT/CD36 relocation. In cultured myotubes, IMCL content and FAT/CD36 relocation are independent of type 2 diabetes, suggesting that distinct factors in obesity and type 2 diabetes contribute to permanent FAT/CD36 relocation ex vivo.

Inhibition of Notch signaling induces myotube hypertrophy by recruiting a subpopulation of reserve cells

During muscle differentiation, a population of quiescent undifferentiated myoblasts (reserve cells) emerges among mature muscle cells. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying such cell segregation and the characterization of this subpopulation of myoblasts remain to be determined. Notch is known to control the behavior and fate of murine muscle stem cells. In this study, we examined the role of Notch in myoblast segregation. We showed that inhibition of Notch activity by either overexpressing Numb or by using a pharmacological gamma-secretase inhibitor (DAPT) enhanced differentiation of murine and human myoblasts. This effect was not restricted to in vitro culture systems since DAPT-treated zebrafish embryos also showed increased differentiation. Using C2.7 myoblasts as a model, we showed that inhibition of Notch induced myotube hypertrophy by recruiting reserve cells that do not normally fuse. We further showed that endogenous Notch-signaling components were differentially expressed and activated in reserve cells with respect to Notch 1 and CD34 expression. We identified CD34 negative reserve cells as the subpopulation of myoblasts recruited to fuse into myotubes during differentiation in response to Notch inhibition. Therefore, we showed here that the activation of Notch 1 is important to maintain a subpopulation of CD34 negative reserve cells in an undifferentiated state.

Cyclin E-cdk2 phosphorylation promotes late G1-phase degradation of MyoD in muscle cells

Proliferating myoblasts already express MyoD before the induction of differentiation. Overexpression of MyoD in normal and transformed cell lines was shown to block cells from entering S phase, suggesting that the MyoD growth suppressive effect must be tightly controlled in growing myoblasts. Here we show that during G1 phase, but not in G2, MyoD abundance is down-regulated by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway through phosphorylation of serine 200. Roscovitine, a specific inhibitor of cyclin-Cdk2 complexes, prevents both phosphorylation and degradation of MyoD in G1. Inhibition of the ubiquitin-dependent proteasome pathway by MG132 results in stabilization of MyoD-wt, with little effect on a MyoD mutant where serine 200 is replaced by an alanine. Our results show that MyoD Ser200 is the substrate for phosphorylation by cyclin E-Cdk2 stimulating its degradation by the ubiquitin-proteasome system which controls MyoD levels in G1. Phosphorylation/degradation of MyoD at the end of G1 thus represents the regulatory checkpoint in growing myoblasts allowing progression into S phase in a manner similar to the recently examplified cdk2-phosphorylation/degradation of p27(Kip1).

Identification and characterization of presenilin-independent Notch signaling

Presenilin (PS) proteins control the proteolytic cleavage that precedes nuclear access of the Notch intracellular domain. Here we observe that a partial activation of the HES1 promoter can be detected in PS1/PS2 (PS1/2) double null cells using Notch1 Delta E constructs or following Delta 1 stimulation, despite an apparent abolition of the production and nuclear accumulation of the Notch intracellular domain. PS1/2-independent Notch activation is sensitive to Numblike, a physiological inhibitor of Notch. PS1/2-independent Notch signaling is also inhibited by an active gamma-secretase inhibitor in the low micromolar range and is not inhibited by an inactive analogue, similar to PS-dependent Notch signaling. However, experiments using a Notch1-Gal4-VP16 fusion protein indicate that the PS1/2-independent activity does not release Gal4-VP16 and is therefore unlikely to proceed via an intramembranous cleavage. These data reveal that a novel PS1/2-independent mechanism plays a partial role in Notch signal transduction.

Increased FAT/CD36 cycling and lipid accumulation in myotubes derived from obese type 2 diabetic patients

BACKGROUND

Permanent fatty acid translocase (FAT/)CD36 relocation has previously been shown to be related to abnormal lipid accumulation in the skeletal muscle of type 2 diabetic patients, however mechanisms responsible for the regulation of FAT/CD36 expression and localization are not well characterized in human skeletal muscle.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Primary muscle cells derived from obese type 2 diabetic patients (OBT2D) and from healthy subjects (Control) were used to examine the regulation of FAT/CD36. We showed that compared to Control myotubes, FAT/CD36 was continuously cycling between intracellular compartments and the cell surface in OBT2D myotubes, independently of lipid raft association, leading to increased cell surface FAT/CD36 localization and lipid accumulation. Moreover, we showed that FAT/CD36 cycling and lipid accumulation were specific to myotubes and were not observed in reserve cells. However, in Control myotubes, the induction of FAT/CD36 membrane translocation by the activation of (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway did not increase lipid accumulation. This result can be explained by the fact that pharmacological activation of AMPK leads to increased mitochondrial beta-oxidation in Control cells.

CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE

Lipid accumulation in myotubes derived from obese type 2 diabetic patients arises from abnormal FAT/CD36 cycling while lipid accumulation in Control cells results from an equilibrium between lipid uptake and oxidation. As such, inhibiting FAT/CD36 cycling in the skeletal muscle of obese type 2 diabetic patients should be sufficient to diminish lipid accumulation.

Retinoic acid receptors and muscle b-HLH proteins: partners in retinoid-induced myogenesis

The results reported here indicate that retinoic acid (RA) induces growth arrest and differentiation only in MyoD-expressing muscle cells. Transient transfection assays reveal a functional interaction between MyoD, a key myogenic regulator and RA-receptors, principal mediators of RA actions. Interestingly, we demonstrate that RXR-MyoD-containing complexes are recruited at specific MyoD DNA-binding sites in muscle cells. Furthermore, we also demonstrate that RA-receptors and the muscle basic helix-loop-helix (b-HLH) proteins interact physically. Mutational analysis suggests that this interaction occurs via the basic region of muscle b-HLH proteins and the DNA-binding domain of RA-receptors and is important for functional interactions between these two families of transcription factors. In conclusion, these results highlight novel interactions between two distinct groups of regulatory proteins that influence cell growth and differentiation.

Intracellular retention of caveolin 1 in presenilin-deficient cells

Mutations in genes encoding presenilins (PS1 and PS2) are responsible for the majority of early onset familial Alzheimer's disease. PS, a critical component of gamma-secretase, is responsible for the intramembranous cleavage of amyloid precursor protein and Notch. Other physiological functions have been assigned to PS without any clear identification of the mechanisms underlying these multiple biological roles. The early embryonic lethality of PS1 and PS2 double knock-out (PS1/2 null) mice prevents the evaluation of physiological roles of PS. To investigate new functions for presenilins, we performed a proteomic approach by using cells derived from PS1/2 null blastocysts and wild type controls. We identified a presenilin-dependent cell-surface binding of albumin. Binding of albumin depends on intact caveolae on the cellular surface. Abnormal caveolin 1 localization in PS1/2 null cells was associated with a loss of caveolae and an absence of caveolin 1 expression within lipid rafts. Expressing PS1 or PS2 but not the intracellular form of Notch1 in PS1/2 null cells restored normal caveolin 1 localization, demonstrating that presenilins are required for the subcellular trafficking of caveolin 1 independently from Notch activity. Despite an expression of both caveolin 1 and PS1 within lipid raft-enriched fractions after sucrose density centrifugation in wild type cells, no direct interaction between these two proteins was detected, implying that presenilins affect caveolin 1 trafficking in an indirect manner. We conclude that presenilins are required for caveolae formation by controlling transport of intracellular caveolin 1 to the plasma membrane.

Abnormal metabolism flexibility in response to high palmitate concentrations in myotubes derived from obese type 2 diabetic patients

Insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes (T2D) is associated with intramuscular lipid (IMCL) accumulation. To determine whether impaired lipid oxidation is involved in IMCL accumulation, we measured expression of genes involved in mitochondrial oxidative metabolism or biogenesis, mitochondrial content and palmitate beta-oxidation before and after palmitate overload (600μM for 16h), in myotubes derived from healthy subjects and obese T2D patients. Mitochondrial gene expression, content and network were not different between groups. Basal palmitate beta-oxidation was not affected in T2D myotubes, whereas after 16h of palmitate pre-treatment, T2D myotubes in contrast to control myotubes, showed an inability to increase palmitate beta-oxidation (p<0.05). Interestingly, acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) phosphorylation was increased with a tendency for statistical significance after palmitate pre-treatment in control myotubes (p=0.06) but not in T2D myotubes which can explain their inability to increase palmitate beta-oxidation after palmitate overload. To determine whether the activation of the AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK)-ACC pathway was able to decrease lipid content in T2D myotubes, cells were treated with AICAR and metformin. These AMPK activators had no effect on ACC and AMPK phosphorylation in T2D myotubes as well as on lipid content, whereas AICAR, but not metformin, increased AMPK phosphorylation in control myotubes. Interestingly, metformin treatment and mitochondrial inhibition by antimycin induced increased lipid content in control myotubes. We conclude that T2D myotubes display an impaired capacity to respond to metabolic stimuli.

cdk5 expression and association with p35nck5a in early stages of rat cerebellum neurogenesis; tyrosine dephosphorylation and activation in post-mitotic neurons

We have examined the expression of cyclin dependent kinase (cdk) 5 protein kinase and p35nck5a, its activator subunit, during postnatal neurogenesis in rat cerebellum, using mono-specific antibodies. Both cdk5 and p35nck5a are present and associated in proliferative stages, although cdk5-p35 kinase activity is barely detectable. Cdk5-p35 activity, but not the expression of either subunit, increases up to 6-fold during neuronal differentiation. Since we observe that cdk5 is phosphorylated on tyrosine in proliferative, but not in post-mitotic stages, we suggest that post-translational regulatory mechanisms control cdk5-p35 protein kinase activity during neurogenesis.

Lipid content and response to insulin are not invariably linked in human muscle cells

In type 2 diabetes, a strong correlation between intramyocellular lipid accumulation and insulin resistance exists but whether intramyocellular accumulation is a cause or a consequence of insulin resistance is not clear. Lipid accumulation and response to insulin were evaluated in primary human myotubes derived from non-diabetic subjects and type 2 diabetic patients. Myotubes derived from type 2 diabetic patients had a defective response to insulin without showing a significant increase in lipid accumulation compared to myotubes derived from non-diabetic subjects. In myotubes derived from non-diabetic subjects, response to insulin stimulation (Akt phosphorylation) was abrogated and lipid content was increased after palmitate treatment. However, chronic exposure to insulin or inhibition of mitochondrial activity by antimycin led to independent changes of lipid content and response to insulin in myotubes derived from non-diabetic subjects. Altogether these results suggest that lipid accumulation and response to insulin are not invariably linked.

Proteomic data on the nuclear interactome of human MCM9

We present data relating to the interactome of MCM9 from the nuclei of human cells. MCM9 belongs to the AAA+ superfamily, and contains an MCM domain and motifs that may confer DNA helicase activity. MCM9 has been shown to bind MCM8, and has been implicated in DNA replication and homologous recombination. However, the mechanistic basis of MCM9’s role in DNA repair is poorly understood, and proteins with which it interacts were hitherto unknown. We performed tandem affinity purification of MCM9 and its interacting proteins from nuclear extracts of human cells, followed by proteomic analysis, thereby generating a set of mass spectrometry data corresponding to the MCM9 interactome [1]. The proteomic data set comprises 29 mass spectrometry RAW files, deposited to the ProteomeXchange Consortium, and freely available from the PRIDE partner repository with the data set identifier PXD000212. A set of 22 interacting proteins identified from the proteomic data was used to create an MCM9-centered interactive network diagram, using the Cytoscape program. These data allow the scientific community to access, mine and explore the human nuclear MCM9 interactome.

Transient induction of cyclin A in loaded chicken skeletal muscle

Cell proliferation is believed to contribute to the increased synthesis rate during load-induced growth of avian anterior latissimus dorsi (ALD) skeletal muscle, but the relative contribution of different cell types to this proliferative response and the time course of cell activation are not well documented. The present investigation measured the abundance and localization of cyclin A protein, which is uniquely present in proliferating cells and required for the entry of vertebrate cells into the DNA synthesis phase during the time course of chicken ALD loading. Total protein content in 1.5-, 7-, and 13-day loaded ALD increased by 60, 191, and 294%, respectively. Immunoblotting analysis identified that cyclin A protein per total protein was dramatically increased in ALD muscle after 1.5 days of loading but returned to control level at 7 days. In vitro kinase assays demonstrated a corresponding massive activation of the cyclin A-regulated, cyclin-dependent kinase 2 but not of cyclin-dependent kinase 2 protein level in muscle homogenates after 1.5 days of muscle loading. Immunofluorescence experiments demonstrated that the increase of cyclin A in 1.5 days of loaded ALD was primarily confined to nuclei of interstitial cells (92%) but was also found in fiber-associated cells (8%). In situ hybridization demonstrated an increased number of nuclei of interstitial cells expressing collagen I transcripts after 1.5 days of loading. These data show that the cell cycle protein cyclin A is induced in fiber-associated cells during the early growth response in loaded ALD but also implicate an activation of interstitial cells as playing an early role in this model for muscle growth.

[Physical exercise and insulin resistance: from muscle metabolic physiopathology to therapeutics]

Insulin resistance which characterises obesity and type 2 diabetes depends on genetic and environmental factors. Sedentarity plays a key role in the development of insulin resistance and skeletal muscle of obese or type 2 diabetes patients shows several abnormalities of carbohydrate and fat metabolism. Exercice training by its beneficial effects on skeletal muscle and particularly on mitochondrial function is efficient to prevent and to treat obesity and type 2 diabetes.