Delirium, neurofilament light chain, and progressive cognitive impairment: analysis of a prospective Norwegian population-based cohort

BACKGROUND

Previous population-based, longitudinal studies have shown that delirium is associated with an increased risk of dementia and cognitive decline. However, the underlying biological mechanisms are largely unknown. We aimed to assess the effects of delirium on both cognitive trajectories and any neuronal injury, measured via neurofilament light chain (NfL).

METHODS

In this analysis of a prospective, 2-year follow-up, cohort study of participants aged 65 years or older living in Sandefjord municipality, Norway, we included cohort participants who were receiving domiciliary care services at least once per week between May 12, 2015, and July 8, 2016. Individuals with a life expectancy of less than 1 week, with Lewy body dementia, with psychiatric illness (except dementia), or for whom substance misuse was the principal indication for domiciliary services were excluded. Participants had a comprehensive assessment at 6-month intervals for 2 years, which included the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and a blood sample for NfL to measure neuronal injury. All information on clinical diagnoses and medications were cross-referenced with medical records. During any acute change in mental status or hospitalisation (ie, admission to hospital), participants were assessed once per day for delirium with Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition criteria. We also measured NfL from blood samples taken from participants who were acutely hospitalised.

FINDINGS

Between May 12, 2015, and July 8, 2016, 210 participants were eligible for inclusion and assessed at baseline (138 [66%] of whom were female and 72 [34%] of whom were male), 203 completed cognitive assessment, and 141 were followed up for 2 years. 160 (76%) of 210 had moderate or severe frailty and 112 (53%) were living with dementia. During the 2-year follow-up, 89 (42%) of 210 participants were diagnosed with one or more episodes of delirium. Incident delirium was independently associated with a decrease in MoCA score at the next 6-month follow-up, even after adjustment for age, sex, education, previous MoCA score, and frailty (adjusted mean difference -1·5, 95% CI -2·9 to -0·1). We found an interaction between previous MoCA score and delirium (β -0·254, 95% CI -0·441 to -0·066, p=0·010), with the largest decline being observed in people with better baseline cognition. Participants with delirium and good previous cognitive function and participants with a high peak concentration of NfL during any hospitalisation had increased NfL at the next 6-month follow-up. Mediation analyses showed independent pathways from previous MoCA score to follow-up MoCA score with contributions from incident delirium (-1·7, 95% CI -2·8 to -0·6) and from previous NfL to follow-up MoCA score with contributions from acute NfL concentrations (-1·8, -2·5 to -1·1). Delirium was directly linked with a predicted value of 1·2 pg/mL (95% CI 1·02 to 1·40, p=0·029) increase in NfL.

INTERPRETATION

In people aged 65 years or older, an episode of delirium was associated with a decline in MoCA score. Greater neuronal injury during acute illness and delirium, measured by NfL, was associated with greater cognitive decline. For clinicians, our finding of delirium associated with both signs of acute neuronal injury, measured via NfL, and cognitive decline is important regarding the risk of long-term cognitive deterioration and to acknowledge that delirium is harmful for the brain.

FUNDING

South-Eastern Norway Health Authorities, Old Age Psychiatry Research Network, Telemark Hospital Trust, Vestfold Hospital Trust, and Norwegian National Centre for Ageing and Health.

TRANSLATION

For the Norwegian translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

Clinical pharmacist intervention to improve medication safety for hip fracture patients through secondary and primary care settings: a nonrandomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Hip fracture patients face a patient safety threat due to medication discrepancies and adverse drug reactions when they have a combination of high age, polypharmacy and several care transitions. Consequently, optimised pharmacotherapy through medication reviews and seamless communication of medication information between care settings is necessary. The primary aim of this study was to investigate the impact on medication management and pharmacotherapy. The secondary aim was to evaluate implementation of the novel Patient Pathway Pharmacist intervention for hip fracture patients.

METHODS

Hip fracture patients were included in this nonrandomised controlled trial, comparing a prospective intervention group (n = 58) with pre-intervention controls who received standard care (n = 50). The Patient Pathway Pharmacist intervention consisted of the steps: (A) medication reconciliation at admission to hospital, (B) medication review during hospitalisation, (C) recommendation for the medication information in the hospital discharge summary, (D) medication reconciliation at admission to rehabilitation, and (E) medication reconciliation and (F) review after hospital discharge. The primary outcome measure was quality score of the medication information in the discharge summary (range 0-14). Secondary outcomes were potentially inappropriate medications (PIMs) at discharge, proportion receiving pharmacotherapy according to guidelines (e.g. prophylactic laxatives and osteoporosis pharmacotherapy), and all-cause readmission and mortality.

RESULTS

The quality score of the discharge summaries was significantly higher for the intervention patients (12.3 vs. 7.2, p < 0.001). The intervention group had significantly less PIMs at discharge (- 0.44 (95% confidence interval - 0.72, - 0.15), p = 0.003), and a higher proportion received prophylactic laxative (72 vs. 35%, p < 0.001) and osteoporosis pharmacotherapy (96 vs. 16%, p < 0.001). There were no differences in readmission or mortality 30 and 90 days post-discharge. The intervention steps were delivered to all patients (step A, B, E, F = 100% of patients), except step (C) medication information at discharge (86% of patients) and step (D) medication reconciliation at admission to rehabilitation (98% of patients).

CONCLUSION

The intervention steps were successfully implemented for hip fracture patients and contributed to patient safety through a higher quality medication information in the discharge summary, fewer PIMs and optimised pharmacotherapy.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT03695081.

Medication management for patients with hip fracture at a regional hospital and associated primary care units in Norway: a descriptive study based on a survey of clinicians' experience and a review of patient records

OBJECTIVE

Patients with hip fracture are at high risk of medication errors due to a combination of high age, comorbidities, polypharmacy and several care transitions after fracture. The aim was to study medication management tasks concerning patient safety: medication reconciliation, medication review and communication of key medication information in care transitions.

DESIGN

Descriptive study comprising a self-administered clinician survey (MedHipPro-Q) and a retrospective review of hospital medical records of patients with hip fracture.

SETTING

Regional hospital and the associated primary care units (South-Eastern Norway).

PARTICIPANTS

The survey received responses from 253 clinicians, 61 medical doctors and 192 nurses, involved in the medication management of patients with hip fracture, from acute admittance to the regional hospital, through an in-hospital fast track, primary care rehabilitation and back to permanent residence. Respondents' representativeness was unknown, introducing a risk of selection and non-response bias, and extrapolating findings should be done with caution. The patient records review included a random sample of records of patients with hip fracture (n=50).

OUTCOME MEASURES

Medication reconciliation, medication review and communication of medication information from two perspectives: the clinicians' (ie, experiences with medication management) and the practice (ie, documentation of completed medication management).

RESULTS

In the survey, most clinicians stated they performed medication reconciliation (79%) and experienced that patients often arrived without a medication list after care transition (37%). Doctors agreed that more patients would benefit from medication reviews (86%). In the hospital patient records, completed medication reconciliation was documented in most patients (76%). Medication review was documented in 2 of 50 patients (4%). Discharge summary guidelines were followed fully for 3 of 50 patients (6%).

CONCLUSION

Our study revealed a need for improved medication management for patients with hip fracture. Patients were at risk of medication information not being transferred correctly between care settings, and medication reviews seemed to be underused in clinical practice.

Impact of involvement of relatives in early home visits by a hospital-led geriatric team

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate whether the involvement of relatives in home visits by a geriatric team post-discharge is associated with unplanned readmissions in severely frail patients living alone.

METHODS

A quality improvement project evaluating outcomes from routine care of patients who were severely frail, 65+ years, living alone, and visited at home by a geriatric team after discharge from acute hospital admission. We compared patients who did and did not have relatives attending the visit. Data were analyzed by logistic regression.

RESULTS

Of 437 patients with a mean age of 85.0 (±7.8) years 73% had severe comorbidity, 68% had a low functional ability, and 100 patients (23%) had relatives attending. Attendance of relatives was associated with a lower unplanned 30-day readmission rate (10% vs. 18%, adjusted odds ratio: 0.48 (0.23-1.00) p=0.05).

CONCLUSION

Results highlights the importance of involvement of relatives in care planning in the severely frail older patients living alone.

Development and initial validation of MedHipPro-Q: a questionnaire assessing medication management of hip fracture patients in different care settings

Background

A validated questionnaire to assess medication management of hip fracture patients within and outside the hospital setting was lacking. The study aims were to describe the hip fracture patient pathway, and develop a valid and feasible questionnaire to assess clinicians’ experience with medication management of hip fracture patients in different care settings throughout the patient pathway.

Methods

This qualitative, descriptive methodological study used strategic and snowball sampling. The questionnaire was developed, and face and content validity explored through interviews with stakeholders. Phase I described the hip fracture patient pathway, and identified questionnaire dimensions in semi-structured interviews with management and clinicians (n = 37). The patient pathway was also discussed in six meetings (n = 70). Phase II refined a first draft of the questionnaire through cognitive interviews with future respondents (n = 23). The draft was modified after each interview. Post hoc, cognitive interview data were analysed using matrix analysis to condense problems and solutions into themes and subthemes. Phase III, converted the final version to a digital format, and tested its feasibility with a subset of the cognitive interview participants (n = 21) who completed the questionnaire and provided feedback.

Results

Phase I: Hip fracture patients were cared for in at least three different care settings, and went through at least four handovers between and within primary and secondary care. Three questionnaire dimensions were identified: 1) Medication reconciliation and review, 2) Communication of key information, and 3) Profession and setting. Phase II: The MedHipPro-Q was representative of how the different professions experienced medication management in all settings, and hence showed face and content validity. Post hoc analysis: Problem themes (with sub-themes) were Representativeness (-of patient pathway and -of respondent reality) and Presentation (Language and Appearance). Solution themes (with sub-themes) were: Content (added or deleted) and Presentation (modified appearance or corrected language). Phase III: Participants did not identify technical, linguistic or content flaws in the questionnaire, and the digital version was considered feasible for use.

Conclusion

The novel MedHipPro-Q showed good face and content validity, and was feasible for use throughout the hip fracture patient pathway. The rigorous development process supports its construct validity and reliability.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12913-022-07524-2.

Delirium During Acute Events in Nursing Home Patients

OBJECTIVES

Assess the frequency of delirium during any acute event, its risk factors, and the duration of delirium in nursing home patients.

DESIGN

Prospective 2-month follow-up study.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

145 nursing home patients living in 3 Norwegian nursing homes.

METHODS

At baseline, known risk factors for delirium were obtained from medical records. During any acute events where the nurses decided that a physician had to be alerted, the Confusion Assessment Method was used to identify delirium on days 1, 2, 4, and 6 and thereafter weekly if delirium was present on day 6. The precipitating cause of delirium was registered based on diagnostics performed and treatment given.

RESULTS

One or more acute events occurred in 57 patients, and 34 (60%) of these patients developed delirium. In 91% of the patients with delirium, the delirium was present when the physician was alerted about the acute change. Delirium lasted for more than 1 week in 15 of the 34 patients. In 18 of the 34 patients with delirium, an infection was its precipitating factor. Regular use of benzodiazepines and a diagnosis of vascular dementia were significantly associated with delirium in the logistic regression model adjusted for age, number of drugs, and comorbidity [adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence interval) 3.75 (1.44-9.74) and 5.59 (1.53-20.43), respectively].

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Acute events and illness were common in nursing home patients, and in our study, 60% had delirium associated with the event. In 9 of 10 patients, the delirium was present when the physician was alerted about the acute change, and infection was the most frequent cause of the delirium. Regular use of benzodiazepines and a diagnosis of vascular dementia were independent predisposing factors for delirium.

Malnutrition Is Associated With Impaired Functional Status in Older People Receiving Home Care Nursing Service

Objective: This study aimed to explore the magnitude and significance of associations among nutritional status, functional status, comorbidities, age, and gender in older adults receiving assistance from the in-home nursing care service.

Method: In this cross-sectional study, 210 home-dwelling persons 65 years or older who received in-home nursing care service were evaluated. Demographic variables, nutritional status, comorbidities, and the dependency levels of activities of daily living were analyzed. To assess the correlation among the factors that influence nutritional status, a theoretical model was developed and adjusted using the path analysis model.

Results: The primary finding is that functional status is directly associated with nutritional status (β = 0.32; p < 0.001) and severity of comorbidities is indirectly associated with nutritional status (β = −0.07; p < 0.017).

Conclusion: The elicited outcomes in this study reinforce the concept that nutritional status is linked with functional status in older adults receiving in-home care nursing service.

Frailty among older patients receiving home care services

BACKGROUND

It is a policy objective for older people in need of care to be able to live at home for as long as possible and receive healthcare services outside of institutions. The degree of frailty in this group and consequent risk of emergency hospitalisation and death have not been widely studied. The objective of this project was to study these questions over a period of two years in a medium-sized Norwegian municipality.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

A sample of patients aged 65 years or older who received home care nursing services on a weekly basis were included. The patients underwent geriatric assessment in their own home every six months over two years. Their degree of frailty was measured using the Frailty Index. Deaths and emergency hospitalisations were recorded over two years.

RESULTS

Of the 271 patients who were asked to participate, 210 were included. Altogether 160 patients (76 %) were classified as moderately or severely frail. During the observation period, 307 hospital admissions were recorded, amounting to a total of 1 235 hospitalisation days. When compared to severely frail patients, those with mild degrees of frailty were less frequently hospitalised (hazard ratio (HR) 0.33; 95 % confidence interval (CI) 0.19-0.60). During the two-year observation period, 63 (30 %) patients died. The mortality rate was highest in patients with severe frailty. In an adjusted Cox regression, increasing age was associated with a higher risk of death, but not with acute hospitalisation.

INTERPRETATION

Older patients with home care nursing services have a high degree of frailty, and a high degree of frailty is associated with increased risk of hospitalisation and death.

Delirium is a risk factor for further cognitive decline in cognitively impaired hip fracture patients

BACKGROUND

Delirium is a risk factor for dementia in cognitively intact patients. Whether an episode of delirium accelerates cognitive decline in patients with known dementia, is less explored.

METHODS

This is a prospective follow-up study of 287 hip fracture patients with pre-fracture cognitive impairment. During the hospitalization, the patients were screened daily for delirium using the Confusion Assessment Method. Pre-fracture cognitive impairment was defined as a score of 3.44 or higher on the pre-fracture Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly Short Form (IQCODE-SF). At follow-up after 4-6 months, the caregivers rated cognitive changes emerging after the fracture using the IQCODE-SF, and the patients were tested with the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE). A sub-group of the patients had a pre-fracture MMSE score which was used to calculate the yearly decline on the MMSE in patients with and without delirium.

RESULTS

201 of the 287 patients developed delirium in the acute phase. In linear regression analysis, delirium was a significant and independent predictor of a more prominent cognitive decline at follow-up measured by the IQCODE-SF questionnaire (p=0.002). Among patients having a pre-fracture MMSE score, the patients developing delirium had a median (IQR) yearly decline of 2.4 points (1.1-3.9), compared to 1.0 points (0-1.9) in the group without delirium (p=0.001, Mann-Whitney test).

CONCLUSIONS

Hip fracture patients with pre-fracture dementia run a higher risk of developing delirium. Delirium superimposed on dementia is a significant predictor of an accelerated further cognitive decline.

Delirium is a risk factor for institutionalization and functional decline in older hip fracture patients

OBJECTIVES

The risk of institutionalization and functional decline is substantial after a hip fracture. However, previous research has not established the extent to which delirium plays a contributory role.

METHODS

Using a prospective design, we studied 207 hip fracture patients aged 65 and older, home-dwelling before the fracture. Patients were screened daily for delirium using the Confusion Assessment Method. Proxy information on pre-fracture cognitive function and function in activities of daily living (ADL) was obtained using the Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly, 16-item version, and the Barthel ADL Index. After 6months, the patients' functions in ADL measured by the Barthel ADL Index and place of living were registered.

RESULTS

Delirium was present in 80 patients (39%) during the hospital stay. After 6months, 33 (16%) were institutionalized. Delirium and lower Barthel ADL Index score were the main risk factors for institutionalization with an adjusted odds ratio (AOR) of 5.50 (95% CI=1.77-17.11) and 0.54 (95% CI=0.40-0.74) respectively. In patients able to return to their private home, the independent risk factors for functional decline were higher age (B=0.053, 95% CI=0.003-0.102) and delirium (B=0.768, 95% CI=0.039-1.497).

CONCLUSIONS

At 6month follow-up, delirium constitutes an independent risk factor for institutionalization and functional decline in hip fracture patients living at home prior to the fracture.

Delirium – a common condition associated with negative outcome in the elderly

<p>Delirium (“acute confusional state”), characterized by an acute decline in attention and cognition, is a common clinical syndrome in elderly patients. The prevalence of delirium increases with age, and is highest among hospitalized older patients. A systematic literature search of MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library limited to the period 2000-2012 was conducted.</p><p>The antecedent of delirium is often multifactorial, the development involving a complex interrelationship between a vulnerable patient with predisposing factors and exposure to precipitating events. Important predisposing factors include high age, cognitive impairment, comorbidity, sensory impairment, and low Body Mass Index (BMI). Infections, cardiovascular events, trauma/fracture, surgery, stroke, metabolic abnormalities, and dehydration, are all recognized as precipitating factors.</p><p>Delirium is associated with negative outcomes like cognitive decline, increased morbidity and mortality, and should be prevented. Prevention and treatment of delirium is multifactorial and multidisiplinary, focusing on the treatment of factors precipitating and maintaining the delirium. No pharmacological treatment has so far demonstrated significant efficacy. The knowledge of risk factors and the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms involved remains scarce, and further research is warranted to explore the mechanisms and thereby develop targeted prevention and treatment strategies.</p>

Delirium is an important predictor of incident dementia among elderly hip fracture patients

BACKGROUND

Delirium is believed to constitute a risk factor for dementia, but previous research has failed to satisfactorily take account of the patients' preexisting level of cognitive functioning.

METHODS

A prospective 6-month follow-up of 106 elderly hip fracture patients free from prefracture dementia. Delirium was assessed by the Confusion Assessment Method. Caregivers described the patients' prefracture cognition by the Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly, Short Form (IQCODE-SF). Cognition was measured after 6 months, using 5 validated cognitive tests. An expert panel assessed each case as to whether the diagnostic criteria for dementia according to the DSM-IV were fulfilled at baseline and after 6 months.

RESULTS

29/106 patients (27%) developed delirium in the acute phase. In the delirious group, 11/29 (38%) fulfilled the criteria of dementia after 6 months, compared to 5/77 (7%) in the group without delirium (p < 0.001; χ(2) test). Delirium was the strongest predictor of dementia after 6 months (adjusted odds ratio: 10.5; 95% CI: 1.6-70.3). IQCODE-SF score was a nonsignificant risk factor for incident dementia.

CONCLUSION

In hip fracture patients free from prefracture dementia, delirium constitutes the main predictor of dementia 6 months later, adjusted for prefracture cognitive decline measured by the IQCODE-SF.

Delirium is not associated with mortality in elderly hip fracture patients

BACKGROUND

The relationship between delirium and mortality remains obscure. The aims of this study were to investigate the effect of delirium and the interaction between delirium and chronic cognitive impairment on mortality in elderly hip fracture patients.

METHODS

This is a prospective observational study, including 331 hip fracture patients. Information on comorbidity, medications and clinical findings was collected at the time of fracture. Information on cause and time of death was obtained from the Norwegian Cause of Death Register. Patients were screened for delirium by the Confusion Assessment Method.

RESULTS

Delirium was not associated with mortality when adjusting for the severity of chronic cognitive impairment, measured by the Infor- mant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE). Estimated by Kaplan-Meier plots, delirium in patients with dementia was significantly associated with an increased risk of death from stroke (p = 0.004) and dementia (p ≤ 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

No association between delirium and mortality was demonstrated when adjusting for the IQCODE score, but delirium in patients with prefracture dementia was associated with an increased risk of death from stroke and dementia. The effect of delirium on the cause of death might be explained by an aggravation of an ongoing neuro-inflammation.

Medical treatment predicts mortality after hip fracture

Background

The mortality after hip fracture has remained high and stable the past 50 years despite improved surgical treatment. The aim of this study was to identify medications and medical factors associated with mortality after hip fracture.

Methods

This is a prospective observational study with median observation time of 21 months. Three hundred and sixty-four patients, mean age 83.4 years and 75.8% women, were enrolled. Information on comorbidity, medications, surgery, and clinical findings were collected at the time of fracture. Information on cause and time of death was obtained from the Norwegian Cause of Death Register.

Results

Six risk factors and one protective factor were identified by Cox proportional hazards model adjusted for propensity score: the use of diuretics (adjusted hazard ratio [HR] = 4.03, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.13–7.64), history of coronary heart disease (CHD) (HR = 2.61, CI = 1.37–4.98), male sex (HR = 2.32, CI = 1.27–4.24), Barthel Index ≤ 18/20 (HR = 2.48, CI = 1.23–5.01), heart rate > 100 on admission (HR = 2.47, CI = 1.18–5.14), body mass index ≤ 20 (HR = 1.94, CI = 1.13–3.34), and the use of statins (HR = 0.23, CI = 0.08–0.68). Patients using diuretics had increased risk of death from all causes, including death from CHD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and falls or other accidents.

Conclusions

The use of diuretics is the strongest predictor of mortality, followed by CHD at the time of fracture, whereas the use of statins is associated with improved survival. Future research is needed to evaluate whether improved diagnosis and management of CHD and congestive heart failure among hip fracture patients would improve survival.

Risk factors for preoperative and postoperative delirium in elderly patients with hip fracture

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate risk factors for preoperative and postoperative delirium.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

SETTING

Departments of orthopedic surgery in two Norwegian hospitals.

PARTICIPANTS

Three hundred sixty-four patients with and without cognitive impairment, aged 65 and older.

MEASUREMENTS

Patients were screened daily for delirium using the Confusion Assessment Method. Established risk factors and risk factors regarded as clinically important according to expert opinion were explored in univariate analyses. Variables associated with the outcomes (P<.05) were entered into multivariate logistic regression models.

RESULTS

Delirium was present in 50 of 237 (21.1%) assessable patients preoperatively, whereas 68 of 187 (36.4%) patients developed delirium postoperatively (incident delirium). Multivariate logistic regression identified four risk factors for preoperative delirium: cognitive impairment (adjusted odds ratio (AOR)=4.7, 95% confidence interval (CI)=1.9-11.3), indoor injury (AOR=3.6, 95% CI=1.1-12.2), fever (AOR=3.4, 95% CI=1.5-7.7), and preoperative waiting time (AOR=1.05, 95% CI=1.0-1.1 per hour). Cognitive impairment (AOR=2.9, 95% CI=1.4-6.2), indoor injury (AOR=2.9, 95% CI=1.1-6.3), and body mass index (BMI) less than 20.0 (AOR=2.9, 95% CI=1.3-6.7) were independent and statistically significant risk factors for postoperative delirium.

CONCLUSION

Time from admission to operation is a risk factor for preoperative delirium, whereas low BMI is an important risk factor for postoperative delirium in hip fracture patients. Cognitive impairment and indoor injury are independent risk factors for preoperative and postoperative delirium.