Hippocampal dysfunction in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia: a selective review and hypothesis for early detection and intervention

Scientists have long sought to characterize the pathophysiologic basis of schizophrenia and develop biomarkers that could identify the illness. Extensive postmortem and in vivo neuroimaging research has described the early involvement of the hippocampus in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. In this context, we have developed a hypothesis that describes the evolution of schizophrenia-from the premorbid through the prodromal stages to syndromal psychosis-and posits dysregulation of glutamate neurotransmission beginning in the CA1 region of the hippocampus as inducing attenuated psychotic symptoms and initiating the transition to syndromal psychosis. As the illness progresses, this pathological process expands to other regions of the hippocampal circuit and projection fields in other anatomic areas including the frontal cortex, and induces an atrophic process in which hippocampal neuropil is reduced and interneurons are lost. This paper will describe the studies of our group and other investigators supporting this pathophysiological hypothesis, as well as its implications for early detection and therapeutic intervention.

Properties and purification of an arachidonoyl-hydrolyzing phospholipase A2 from a macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7

The lipid mediators, platelet activating factor (PAF) and the eicosanoids, can be coordinately produced from the common phospholipid precursor, 1-O-alkyl-2-arachidonoylglycerophosphocholine (1-O-alkyl-2-arachidonoyl-GPC), through the initial action of a phospholipase A2 that cleaves arachidonic acid from the sn-2 position. The mouse macrophage cell line RAW 264.7, which was used as a model macrophage system to study the arachidonoyl-hydrolyzing phospholipase A2 enzyme(s), could be induced to release arachidonic acid in response to inflammatory stimuli. A phospholipase A2 that hydrolyzed 1-O-hexadecyl-2-[3H]arachidonoyl-GPC was identified in the cytosolic fraction of these macrophages. This phospholipase activity was optimal at pH 8 and dependent on calcium. Enzyme activity could be stimulated 3-fold by heparin, suggesting the presence of phospholipase inhibitory proteins in the macrophage cytosol. Compared to 1-alkyl-2-arachidonoyl-GPC, the enzyme hydrolyzed 1-acyl-2-arachidonoylglycerophosphoethanolamine (1-acyl-2-arachidonoyl-GPE) with similar activity but showed slightly greater activity against 1-acyl-2-arachidonoyl-GPC, suggesting no specificity for the sn-1 linkage or the phospholipid base group. Although comparable activity against 1-acyl-2-arachidonoylglycerophosphoinositol (1-acyl-2-arachidonoyl-GPI) could be achieved, the enzyme exhibited much lower affinity for the inositol-containing substrate. The enzyme did, however, show apparent specificity for arachidonic acid at the sn-2 position, since much lower activity was observed against choline-containing substrates with either linoleic or oleic acids at the sn-2 position. The cytosolic phospholipase A2 was purified by first precipitating the enzyme with ammonium sulfate followed by chromatography over Sephadex G150, where the phospholipase A2 eluted between molecular weight markers of 67,000 and 150,000. The active peak was then chromatographed over DEAE-cellulose, phenyl-Sepharose, Q-Sepharose, Sephadex G150 and finally hydroxylapatite. The purification scheme has resulted in over a 1000-fold increase in specific activity (2 mumol/min per mg protein). Under non-reducing conditions, a major band on SDS-polyacrylamide gels at 70 kDa was observed, which shifted to a lower molecular weight, 60,000, under reducing conditions. The properties of the purified enzyme including the specificity for sn-2-arachidonoyl-containing phospholipids was similar to that observed for the crude enzyme. The results demonstrate the presence of a phospholipase A2 in the macrophage cell line. RAW 264.7, that preferentially hydrolyzes arachidonoyl-containing phospholipid substrates.

Mental disorders and risk of suicide attempt: a national prospective study

Most mental disorders, when examined independently, are associated with an elevated risk for suicide attempt. However, mental disorders often co-occur, and that co-occurrence is well explained by models where specific mental disorders are understood as manifestations of latent dimensions of psychopathology. To date, it remains unclear whether the risk of suicide attempt is due to specific mental disorders, to specific dimensions of psychopathology (that is, internalizing and externalizing dimensions), to a general psychopathology factor or to a combination of these explanations. In a large nationally representative prospective survey, the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC), we used structural equation modeling to examine the shared and specific effects of Axis I and Axis II disorders on the occurrence of suicide attempts in the general population and among individuals with a lifetime history of suicidal ideation. Effects of mental disorders on the risk of suicide attempt were exerted almost exclusively through a general psychopathology factor representing the shared effect across all mental disorders. Effects of remitted psychiatric disorders on the risk of suicide attempt were fully mediated by current mental disorders. Similar patterns of associations were found in individuals with suicidal ideation. These results held when using different approaches to modeling psychiatric comorbidity. Our findings underscore the importance of adopting dimensional approaches to comorbidity in the study of suicidal behavior. Because mental disorders increase the risk of suicide attempt through a general psychopathology liability, this dimension should be considered as an important therapeutic target to substantially advance suicide prevention.

Home/family, peer, school, and neighborhood correlates of obesity in adolescents

OBJECTIVE

This study was designed to (1) identify the most important home/family, peer, school, and neighborhood environmental characteristics associated with weight status and (2) determine the overall contribution of these contexts to explaining weight status among an ethnically/racially diverse sample of adolescents.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Surveys and anthropometric measures were completed in 2009-2010 by 2,793 adolescents (53.2% girls, mean age = 14.4 ± 2.0, 81.1% non-white) in Minneapolis/St. Paul, Minnesota schools. Data representing characteristics of adolescents' environments were collected from parents/caregivers, friends, school personnel, and Geographic Information System sources. Multiple regression models controlled for adolescent age, ethnicity/race, and socioeconomic status.

RESULTS

The variance in body mass index (BMI) z-scores explained by 51 multicontextual characteristics was 24% for boys and 22% for girls. Across models, several characteristics of home/family (e.g., infrequent family meals) and peer environments (e.g., higher proportion of male friends who were overweight) were consistently associated with higher BMI z-scores among both boys and girls. Among girls, additional peer (e.g., lower physical activity among female friends) and neighborhood (e.g., perceived lack of safety) characteristics were consistently associated with higher BMI z-scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Results underscore the importance of addressing the home/family and peer environments in future research and intervention efforts designed to reduce adolescent obesity.

Thought disorder in the meta-structure of psychopathology

BACKGROUND

Dimensional models of co-morbidity have the potential to improve the conceptualization of mental disorders in research and clinical work, yet little is known about how relatively uncommon disorders may fit with more common disorders. The present study estimated the meta-structure of psychopathology in the US general population focusing on the placement of five under-studied disorders sharing features of thought disorder: paranoid, schizoid, avoidant and schizotypal personality disorders, and manic episodes as well as bipolar disorder.

METHOD

Data were drawn from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions, a face-to-face interview of 34 653 non-institutionalized adults in the US general population. The meta-structure of 16 DSM-IV Axis I and Axis II psychiatric disorders, as assessed by the Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule DSM-IV version (AUDADIS-IV), was examined using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis.

RESULTS

We document an empirically derived thought disorder factor that is a subdomain of the internalizing dimension, characterized by schizoid, paranoid, schizotypal and avoidant personality disorders as well as manic episodes. Manic episodes exhibit notable associations with both the distress subdomain of the internalizing dimension as well as the thought disorder subdomain. The structure was replicated for bipolar disorder (I or II) in place of manic episodes.

CONCLUSIONS

As our understanding of psychopathological meta-structure expands, incorporation of disorders characterized by detachment and psychoticism grows increasingly important. Disorders characterized by detachment and psychoticism may be well conceptualized, organized and measured as a subdimension of the internalizing spectrum of disorders. Manic episodes and bipolar disorder exhibit substantial co-morbidity across both distress and thought disorder domains of the internalizing dimension. Clinically, these results underscore the potential utility of conceptualizing patient treatment needs using an approach targeting psychopathological systems underlying meta-structural classification rubrics.

Demonstrating Pathogenicity of Enterobacter cloacae on Macadamia and Identifying Associated Volatiles of Gray Kernel of Macadamia in Hawaii

Gray kernel is an important disease of macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia) that affects the quality of kernels, causing gray discoloration and a permeating, foul odor. Gray kernel symptoms were produced in raw, in-shell kernels of three cultivars of macadamia that were inoculated with strains of Enterobacter cloacae. Koch's postulates were fulfilled for three strains, demonstrating that E. cloacae is a causal agent of gray kernel. An inoculation protocol was developed to consistently reproduce gray kernel symptoms. Among the E. cloacae strains studied, macadamia strain LK 0802-3 and ginger strain B193-3 produced the highest incidences of disease (65 and 40%, respectively). The other macadamia strain, KN 04-2, produced gray kernel in 21.7% of inoculated nuts. Control treatments had 1.7% gray kernel symptoms. Some abiotic and biotic factors that affected incidence of gray kernel in inoculated kernels were identified. Volatiles of gray and nongray kernel samples also were analyzed. Ethanol and acetic acid were present in nongray and gray kernel samples, whereas volatiles from gray kernel samples included the additional compounds, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone (acetoin), 2,3-butanediol, phenol, and 2-methoxyphenol (guaiacol). This is believed to be the first report of the identification of volatile compounds associated with gray kernel.

Anti-inflammatory and Quinone Reductase Inducing Compounds from Fermented Noni (Morinda citrifolia) Juice Exudates

A new fatty acid ester disaccharide, 2-O-(β-d-glucopyranosyl)-1-O-(2E,4Z,7Z)-deca-2,4,7-trienoyl-β-d-glucopyranose (1), a new ascorbic acid derivative, 2-caffeoyl-3-ketohexulofuranosonic acid γ-lactone (2), and a new iridoid glycoside, 10-dimethoxyfermiloside (3), were isolated along with 13 known compounds (4-16) from fermented noni fruit juice (Morinda citrifolia). The structures of the new compounds, together with 4 and 5, were determined by 1D and 2D NMR experiments, as well as comparison with published values. Compounds 2 and 7 showed moderate inhibitory activities in a TNF-α-induced NF-κB assay, and compounds 4 and 6 exhibited considerable quinone reductase-1 (QR1) inducing effects.

Latent structure of social fears and social anxiety disorders

BACKGROUND

Despite its high prevalence and associated levels of impairment, the latent structure of social anxiety disorder (SAD) is not well understood, with published studies reporting inconsistent results. Furthermore, it is unknown whether the latent structure of social fears in individuals with and without SAD is the same.

METHOD

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis followed by multiple indicators multiple causes (MIMIC) analysis were conducted on 13 commonly feared social situations assessed in a nationally representative sample including individuals with SAD and those with social fears but who did not meet DSM-IV criteria for SAD.

RESULTS

An EFA conducted in the full sample, including individuals with no social fears (88% of the sample), yielded only one factor. When the sample was restricted to those with at least one social fear, the EFA yielded three factors, in both the subsample with at least one social fear but no SAD and the subsample with SAD. The three factors represented feared situations related to public performance, close scrutiny and social interaction. The MIMIC analyses further indicated that the three-factor structure was able to explain differences in prevalence of social fears across a broad range of sociodemographic covariates.

CONCLUSIONS

Among individuals with at least one social fear and those with DSM-IV SAD the latent structure of social fears appears to be best described by three factors, although this may partially depend on how the sample is specified. These results may help reconcile the findings of different numbers of factors identified in previous studies.

Psychometric properties of the modified Symptom Severity Index (SSI)

The psychometric properties of the modified Symptom Severity Index were investigated to assess the relationships among dimensions of pain in temporomandibular disorders (TMD). The 15-item instrument is composed of ordinal scales assessing five pain dimensions (intensity, frequency, duration, unpleasantness and difficulty to endure) as experienced in three locations (temple, temporomandibular joint (TMJ), masseter). In 108 closed-lock subjects, Cronbach's alpha was used to measure internal consistency resulting in 31 of the 105 pair-wise comparisons >or=0.71. Multilevel exploratory factor analysis was used to assess dimensionality between items. Two factors emerged, termed temple pain and jaw pain. The jaw pain factor comprised the TMJ and masseter locations, indicating that subjects did not differentiate between these two locations. With further analysis, the jaw pain factor could be separated into temporal aspects of pain (frequency, duration) and affective dimensions (intensity, unpleasantness, endurability). Temple pain could not be further reduced; this may have been influenced by concurrent orofacial pains such as headache. Internal consistency was high, with alphas >or=0.92 for scales associated with all factors. Excellent test-retest reliability was found for repeat testing at 2-48 h in 55 subjects (Intra-class correlation coefficients = 0.97, 95%CI 0.96-0.99). In conclusion, the modified Symptom Severity Index has excellent psychometric properties for use as an instrument to measure pain in subjects with TMD. The most important characteristic of this pain is location, while the temporal dimensions are important for jaw pain. Further research is needed to confirm these findings and assess relationships between dimensions of pain as experienced in other chronic pain disorders.

Major phenolic acids and total antioxidant activity in Mamaki leaves, Pipturus albidus

Three phenolic acids, (+)catechins, chlorogenic acid, and rutin, were identified and quantified in Mamaki leaves using a liquid chromatograph-mass spectrometer technique. Concentrations of (+)catechins, chlorogenic acid, and rutin varied from 1.1 to 5.0 mg/g of Mamaki leaves as determined in the extract using 0.5% acetic acid in 90% aqueous methanol. This study also quantified total antioxidant capacity using the photochemiluminescence method, which was expressed in equivalents to ascorbic acid (AA). Mamaki teas brewed for 30 min contained total antioxidant activity (TAA) between 238 and 259 mg AA/g of tea. Mamaki teas brewed for 1 h and stored at 4 h, 1 d, and 3 d at 4 degrees C had available TAA 293, 271, 172, and 163 mg AA/g of tea leaves, respectively. The concentrations of (+)catechins and rutin in Mamaki leaves are compared to other types of popular teas. Mamaki teas contained relatively low amounts of TAA compared to green teas and Lipton teas.

Volatile changes in Hawaiian noni fruit, Morinda citrifolia L., during ripening and fermentation

BACKGROUND

Noni fruit (Morinda citrifolia L., Rubiaceae) has been used in traditional medicine throughout the tropics and subtropics and is now attracting interest in western medicine. Fermented noni juice is of particular interest for its promising antitumor activity. The present study collected and analyzed volatiles released at nine time intervals by noni fruit during ripening and fermentation using headspace autosampling coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Twenty-three noni volatiles were identified and relatively quantified. In addition to volatiles previously identified in noni, four novel volatile 3-methyl-2/3-butenyl esters were identified via the synthesis of reference compounds. Principle component analysis (PCA) and canonical discriminant analysis (CDA) were used to facilitate multidimensional pattern recognition. PCA showed that ripening noni fruit cluster into three groups, pre-ripe, fully ripe (translucent) and fermented, based on released volatiles. CDA could 83.8% correctly classify noni samples when all ripeness stages were analyzed and 100% when samples were classified into the three PCA groupings.

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study confirm the identities of 3-methyl-2/3-butenyl esters, both novel and previously identified, through the synthesis of reference compounds. These esters constitute a large percentage of the volatiles released by fully ripe and fermented noni and likely produced from the decomposition of noniosides, a group of unique glucosides present in the fruit. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Modeling and treating internalizing psychopathology in a clinical trial: a latent variable structural equation modeling approach

BACKGROUND

Clinical trials are typically designed to test the effect of a specific treatment on a single diagnostic entity. However, because common internalizing disorders are highly correlated ('co-morbid'), we sought to establish a practical and parsimonious method to characterize and quantify changes in a broad spectrum of internalizing psychopathology targeted for treatment in a clinical trial contrasting two transdiagnostic psychosocial interventions.

METHOD

Alcohol dependence treatment patients who had any of several common internalizing disorders were randomized to a six-session cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) experimental treatment condition or a progressive muscle relaxation training (PMRT) comparison treatment condition. Internalizing psychopathology was characterized at baseline and 4 months following treatment in terms of the latent structure of six distinct internalizing symptom domain surveys.

RESULTS

Exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) identified a two-factor solution at both baseline and the 4-month follow-up: Distress (measures of depression, trait anxiety and worry) and Fear (measures of panic anxiety, social anxiety and agoraphobia). Although confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) demonstrated measurement invariance between the time-points, structural models showed that the latent means of Fear and Distress decreased substantially from baseline to follow-up for both groups, with a small but statistically significant advantage for the CBT group in terms of Distress (but not Fear) reduction.

CONCLUSIONS

The approach demonstrated in this study provides a practical solution to modeling co-morbidity in a clinical trial and is consistent with converging evidence pointing to the dimensional structure of internalizing psychopathology.

Genome characterization of fig umbra-like virus

The complete genome of a new umbra-like virus from edible fig (Ficus carica) was identified by high-throughput sequencing. Based on its similarity to umbra-like virus genome sequences available in GenBank, the proposed name of this new virus is "fig umbra-like virus" (FULV). The genome of full-length FULV-1 consists of 3049 nucleotides organized into three open reading frames (ORFs). Pairwise comparisons showed that the complete nucleotide sequence of the virus had the highest identity (71.3%) to citrus yellow vein-associated virus (CYVaV). In addition, phylogenetic trees based on whole-genome nucleotide sequences and amino acid sequences of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase showed that FULV forms a monophyletic lineage with CYVaV and other umbra-like viruses. Based on the demarcation criteria of the genus Umbravirus, and lack of two umbravirus ORFs, we propose that FULV is a putative new member of the umbra-like virus clade within the family Tombusviridae.

Examining heterotypic continuity of psychopathology: a prospective national study

BACKGROUND

Individuals with one psychiatric disorder are at increased risk for incidence and recurrence of other disorders. We characterize whether the magnitude of such heterotypic continuity varies based on whether the first disorder remits or persists over time.

METHOD

Cohorts were selected from participants in the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions wave 1 (2001-2002) and wave 2 (2004-2005) surveys with ⩾1 mood, anxiety, or substance use disorder at wave 1. Among respondents remitting (n = 6719) or not remitting (n = 3435) from ⩾1 of disorder at wave 2, the analyses compared the odds of developing new disorders.

RESULTS

As compared with adults whose disorders persisted from wave 1 to wave 2, those with ⩾1 remission had lower odds of incidence or recurrence of another disorder. Remission from alcohol dependence [odds ratio (OR) 0.4, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.3-0.5] and drug dependence (OR 0.4, 95% CI 0.3-0.6) were associated with the lowest odds of incidence of another disorder. Social anxiety disorder was associated with the lowest adjusted odds of recurrence (adjusted OR = 0.2, 95% CI 0.1-0.6). Remission of disorders within one class (mood, anxiety, substance use) was consistently associated with lower odds of incidence or recurrence of disorders from the same class than with developing disorders from the other classes.

CONCLUSIONS

Remission from common psychiatric disorders tends to decrease the risk for incidence or recurrence of disorders and this effect is stronger within than across disorder classes. These results do not support the concept of heterotypic continuity as a substitution of one disorder for another.

Mediators involved in the relation between depressive symptoms and weight status in female adolescents and young adults

Depression may be a risk factor for overweight status, but mechanisms involved in this relationship are unclear. This study explored behavioral factors involved in the relationship between adolescent depression symptoms and adult overweight status. A population-based cohort of female participants in Project EAT (n=1,035) was followed over 10 years and reported on psychological functioning, weight status, and eating and activity patterns in early/middle adolescence (1999=Time 1; T1), middle adolescence/early young adulthood (2004=Time 2; T2), and early/middle young adulthood (2009=Time 3; T3). Structural equation models were fit which included T1 depression scores predicting overweight status at T3, with T2 fruit and vegetable consumption, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, and binge eating examined as mediators. There were small but significant effects of T1 depression scores predicting an increased likelihood of T3 overweight status (standardized estimate=0.038; p=.007), and of T2 binge eating mediating the relation between T1 depression and T3 overweight status (standardized indirect effect estimate=.036; p=.009). Binge eating may be one pathway to overweight among depressed females, suggesting that recognition and treatment of eating pathology in individuals with depression may help prevent overweight. Examination of other behavioral (and non-behavioral) factors explaining the relationship between depression and overweight is warranted.

A single-walled carbon nanotubes-based electrochemical impedance immunosensor for on-site detection of Listeria monocytogenes

Real-time and sensitive detection of pathogenic bacteria in food is in high demand to ensure food safety. In this study, a single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs)-based electrochemical impedance immunosensor for on-site detection of Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes) was developed. A gold-plated wire was functionalized using polyethylenimine (PEI), SWCNTs, streptavidin, biotinylated L. monocytogenes antibodies, and bovine serum albumin (BSA). A linear relationship (R²  = 0.982) between the electron transfer resistance measurements and concentrations of L. monocytogenes within the range of 10³ -10⁸ CFU/ml was observed. In addition, the sensor demonstrated high selectivity towards the target in the presence of other bacterial cells such as Salmonella Typhimurium and Escherichia coli O157:H7. To facilitate the demand for on-site detection, the sensor was integrated into a smartphone-controlled biosensor platform, consisting of a compact potentiostat device and a smartphone. The signals from the proposed platform were compared with a conventional potentiostat using the immunosensor interacted with L. monocytogenes (10³ -10⁵ CFU/ml). The signals obtained with both instruments showed high consistency. Recovery percentages of lettuce homogenate spiked with 10³ , 10⁴ , and 10⁵ CFU/ml of L. monocytogenes obtained with the portable platform were 90.21, 90.44, and 93.69, respectively. The presented on-site applicable SWCNT-based immunosensor platform was shown to have a high potential to be used in field settings for food and agricultural applications. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The developed immunosensor was developed for on-site detection of L. monocytogenes. The limit of detection of the sensor was 10³ CFU/ml with a detection time of 10 min. In order to facilitate the requirements for effective on-site screening for food safety, the sensor was integrated into a smartphone-controlled platform, so that the bio-molecular interactions were converted into impedance signals and transmitted wirelessly to a smartphone by a hand-held EIS transducer.

Identification and complete genomic sequence of a novel sadwavirus discovered in pineapple (Ananas comosus)

The complete genomic sequence of a putative novel member of the family Secoviridae was determined by high-throughput sequencing of a pineapple accession obtained from the National Plant Germplasm Repository in Hilo, Hawaii. The predicted genome of the putative virus was composed of two RNA molecules of 6,128 and 4,161 nucleotides in length, excluding the poly-A tails. Each genome segment contained one large open reading frame (ORF) that shares homology and phylogenetic identity with members of the family Secoviridae. The presence of this new virus in pineapple was confirmed using RT-PCR and Sanger sequencing from six samples collected in Oahu, Hawaii. The name "pineapple secovirus A" (PSVA) is proposed for this putative new sadwavirus.

First Report of Association of Mucor circinelloides on Noni (Morinda citrifolia) in Hawaii

Noni (Morinda citrifolia) is a popular medicinal plant found in tropical or subtropical regions of the world. The fruit and juice extracts have properties that are reportedly therapeutic for diabetes, high blood pressure, and certain types of cancer (1,4). In our studies on noni juice produced from fruit collected from the Kohala and Puna districts of the island of Hawaii from 2008 to 2010, Mucor circinelloides f. sp. circinelloides was isolated from 85% of 157 juice samples and observed with up to 75% incidence on fruit surfaces during fermentation processing in glass jars. Fungal growth, appearing 14 to 21 days in storage at 22°C, was pale yellow to tan brown and was associated with wounded surfaces. Single-spore strains, KN 06-2 (2006; ripe fruit puree) and KN 08-08 (2008; fermented juice; CBS 124110), identified by Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures by molecular methods were 97.3% similar in internal transcribed spacer sequence to the type strain (CBS 195.68). M. circinelloides f. sp. circinelloides strains (KN 08-08, KN 09-06, or KN 10-02) (2008 to 2010; fermented juice) were inoculated by pipetting an aliquot of 100 μl of fungus strain spore suspension (1 × 10⁵ to 1.33 × 10⁶ spores/ml) onto firm, yellow maturity noni fruit that were washed, surface disinfected, and either wounded (surface cuts) or nonwounded. Controls consisted of no inoculation and sterile distilled water (SDW) inoculation treatments. Ten to twenty each of wounded and nonwounded fruit comprised each inoculation treatment. Fruit were incubated in acrylic bins with a layer of distilled water at the bottom, and sealed with snap-on lids. The bins were incubated on a lab bench at 22 to 23°C under fluorescent lights. Fruits were evaluated for presence of fungal growth and severity of symptoms. To determine viability of spores on inoculated fruit without symptoms, surfaces were swabbed with sterile cotton swabs dipped in SDW, streaked on potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates, and incubated at 22°C under fluorescent lights. The inoculation experiment was conducted twice. Nonwounded fruit inoculated with M. circinelloides f. sp. circinelloides strains did not result in infections (KN 09-06 and KN 10-02) or produced slight mycelial growth (0 to 20%; KN 08-08). Wounded fruit inoculated with any of the three strains resulted in 85 to 100% infection of moderate severity. There were no infections in noninoculated or SDW treatments of nonwounded or wounded fruit. Koch's postulates were fulfilled with the reisolation of M. circinelloides f. sp. circinelloides from selected fruit exhibiting soft tissue, discoloration, and sporulating yellowish green mycelial growth. Swab washes from asymptomatic surfaces of inoculated nonwounded fruit resulted in the growth of M. circinelloides f. sp. circinelloides on PDA, proving viability of the spores and confirmed that the fungus is primarily pathogenic only on wounded fruit surfaces. To our knowledge, this is the first report of M. circinelloides as a wound pathogen of noni fruit. The quality of fermented noni juice may be affected by the presence of M. circinelloides f. sp. circinelloides but can be remedied by pasteurization that does not affect antitumor properties (unpublished data). This fungus is also a reported pathogen of mango (2) and peach (3). References: (1) J. Li et al. Oncol. Rep. 20:1505, 2008. (2) K. Pernezny and G. W. Simone. Phytopathol. News 34:25, 2000. (3) C. Restuccia et al. J. Food Prot. 69:2465, 2006. (4) M. Y. Wang et al. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 23:1127, 2002.

Validity of the DSM-5 craving criterion for alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, cocaine, heroin, and non-prescription use of prescription painkillers (opioids)

BACKGROUND

Although the DSM-5 was adopted in 2013, the validity of the new substance use disorder (SUD) diagnosis and craving criterion has not been investigated systematically across substances.

METHODS

Adults (N = 588) who engaged in binge drinking or illicit drug use and endorsed at least one DSM-5 SUD criterion were included. DSM-5 SUD criteria were assessed for alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, cocaine, heroin, and opioids. Craving was considered positive if "wanted to use so badly that could not think of anything else" (severe craving) or "felt a very strong desire or urge to use" (moderate craving) was endorsed. Baseline information on substance-related variables and psychopathology was collected, and electronic daily assessment queried substance use for the following 90 days. For each substance, logistic regression estimated the association between craving and validators, i.e. variables expected to be related to craving/SUD, and whether association with the validators differed for DSM-5 SUD diagnosed with craving as a criterion v. without.

RESULTS

Across substances, craving was associated with most baseline validators (p values<0.05); neither moderate nor severe craving consistently showed greater associations. Baseline craving predicted subsequent use [odds ratios (OR): 4.2 (alcohol) - 234.3 (heroin); p's ⩽ 0.0001], with stronger associations for moderate than severe craving (p's < 0.05). Baseline DSM-5 SUD showed stronger associations with subsequent use when diagnosed with craving than without (p's < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The DSM-5 craving criterion as operationalized in this study is valid. Including craving improves the validity of DSM-5 SUD diagnoses, and clinical relevance, since craving may cause impaired control over use and development and maintenance of SUD.

Occurrence of tomato leaf curl Bangladesh virus and associated subviral DNA molecules in papaya in Bangladesh: molecular detection and characterization

Forty-five papaya samples showing severe leaf curl symptoms were tested by PCR with a degenerate primer set for virus species in the genus Begomovirus. Of these, 29 were positive for tomato leaf curl Bangladesh virus (ToLCBV). The complete genome sequences of ToLCBV (GenBank accession no. MH380003) and its associated tomato leaf curl betasatellite (ToLCB) (MH397223) from papaya isolate Gaz17-Pap were determined and characterized. Defective betasatellites were found in ToLCBV-positive papaya isolates Gaz19-Pap, Gaz20-Pap and Gaz21-Pap. This study confirmed that papaya is a host of ToLCBV, ToLCB, and other defective and recombinant DNA satellites in Bangladesh.