Lignins as Promising Renewable Biopolymers and Bioactive Compounds for High-Performance Materials

The recycling of biomass into high-value-added materials requires important developments in research and technology to create a sustainable circular economy. Lignin, as a component of biomass, is a multipurpose aromatic polymer with a significant potential to be used as a renewable bioresource in many fields in which it acts both as promising biopolymer and bioactive compound. This comprehensive review gives brief insights into the recent research and technological trends on the potential of lignin development and utilization. It is divided into ten main sections, starting with an outlook on its diversity; main properties and possibilities to be used as a raw material for fuels, aromatic chemicals, plastics, or thermoset substitutes; and new developments in the use of lignin as a bioactive compound and in nanoparticles, hydrogels, 3D-printing-based lignin biomaterials, new sustainable biomaterials, and energy production and storage. In each section are presented recent developments in the preparation of lignin-based biomaterials, especially the green approaches to obtaining nanoparticles, hydrogels, and multifunctional materials as blends and bio(nano)composites; most suitable lignin type for each category of the envisaged products; main properties of the obtained lignin-based materials, etc. Different application categories of lignin within various sectors, which could provide completely sustainable energy conversion, such as in agriculture and environment protection, food packaging, biomedicine, and cosmetics, are also described. The medical and therapeutic potential of lignin-derived materials is evidenced in applications such as antimicrobial, antiviral, and antitumor agents; carriers for drug delivery systems with controlled/targeting drug release; tissue engineering and wound healing; and coatings, natural sunscreen, and surfactants. Lignin is mainly used for fuel, and, recently, studies highlighted more sustainable bioenergy production technologies, such as the supercapacitor electrode, photocatalysts, and photovoltaics.

A Sustainable Approach to a Cleaner Production of Antimicrobial and Biocompatible Protein Fibers

This study presents the production, characterization, and application of celandine (Chelidonium majus L.) extracts (aqueous, acidic, alcoholic, and ultrasound) on wool fibers and their characterization. The study aims to obtain an ecologically dyed wool support that possesses biocompatible and antimicrobial activities. The plant extracts were characterized based on pH, total polyphenol content, and berberine content. Ecologically dyed wool supports were characterized based on scanning electron microscopy, levelness index, color measurements, contact angle indirect biocompatibility, and antibacterial analysis. According to the obtained results, celandine extract can be considered a potential candidate for the sustainable dyeing and functionalization of wool fibers.

Design, preparation and in vitro characterization of biomimetic and bioactive chitosan/polyethylene oxide based nanofibers as wound dressings

Chitosan-based nanofibers (CS-NFs) are excellent artificial extracellular matrices (ECMs) due to the resemblance of CS with the glycosaminoglycans of the natural ECMs. Despite this excellent feature, the poor electrospinnability and mechanical properties of CS are responsible for important limitations in respect to its biomedical applications. To improve the CS's physico-chemical properties, new bioactive and biomimetic CS-NFs were formulated with polyethylene oxide (PEO), having incorporated different active components (ACs) with important beneficial effects for healing. Manuka honey (trophic and antimicrobial effects), propolis (antimicrobial effects), Calendula officinalis infusion (antioxidant effect, reepithelialization stimulating agent), insulin (trophic effect), and L-arginine (angiogenic effect) were selected as ACs. SEM morphology analysis revealed well-alignment, unidirectional arrays, with small diameters, no beads, and smooth surfaces for developed CS_PEO-ACs NFs. The developed NFs showed good biodegradability (NFs mats lost up to 60% of their initial weight in PBS), increased hemocompatibility (hemolytic index less than 4%), and a reduced cytotoxicity degree (cell viability degree more than 90%). In addition, significant antioxidant and antimicrobial effects were noted for the developed NFs which make them suitable for chronic wounds, due to the role of oxidative stress and infection risk in delaying normal wound healing. The most suitable for wound healing applications seems to be CS_PEO@P_C which showed an improved hemolysis index (2.92 ± 0.16%), is non-toxic (cell viability degree more than 97%), and has also significant radical scavenging effect (DPPH inhibition more than 65%). In addition, CS_PEO@P_C presents increased antimicrobial effects, more noticeably for Staphylococcus aureus strain, which is a key feature in preventing wound infection and delaying the healing process. It can be concluded that the developed CS/PEO-ACs NFs are very promising biomaterials for wound care, especially CS_PEO@P_C.

Progresses in Food Packaging, Food Quality, and Safety-Controlled-Release Antioxidant and/or Antimicrobial Packaging

Food packaging is designed to protect foods, to provide required information about the food, and to make food handling convenient for distribution to consumers. Packaging has a crucial role in the process of food quality, safety, and shelf-life extension. Possible interactions between food and packaging are important in what is concerning food quality and safety. This review tries to offer a picture of the most important types of active packaging emphasizing the controlled/target release antimicrobial and/or antioxidant packaging including system design, different methods of polymer matrix modification, and processing. The testing methods for the appreciation of the performance of active food packaging, as well as mechanisms and kinetics implied in active compounds release, are summarized. During the last years, many fast advancements in packaging technology appeared, including intelligent or smart packaging (IOSP), (i.e., time-temperature indicators (TTIs), gas indicators, radiofrequency identification (RFID), and others). Legislation is also discussed.

New Developments in Medical Applications of Hybrid Hydrogels Containing Natural Polymers

New trends in biomedical applications of the hybrid polymeric hydrogels, obtained by combining natural polymers with synthetic ones, have been reviewed. Homopolysaccharides, heteropolysaccharides, as well as polypeptides, proteins and nucleic acids, are presented from the point of view of their ability to form hydrogels with synthetic polymers, the preparation procedures for polymeric organic hybrid hydrogels, general physico-chemical properties and main biomedical applications (i.e., tissue engineering, wound dressing, drug delivery, etc.).

Effects of perfluorocarbon emulsion in rheology

AIM

To study effects of a perfluorocarbon emulsion on plasma and whole human blood viscosity in the presence of albumin or modified fluid gelatin.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We investigated the effects of several PFC concentrations on plasma and whole blood viscosity in the presence of human albumin solution (HAS) or modified fluid gelatine (MFG; Gelofusine) to obtain three PFC emulsion concentrations (4, 8 and 15 g/dL). Three hematocrit levels (Hct) were investigated: 30, 20 and 13%, corresponding to different clinical situations. Plasma and whole blood viscosity was measured at 37 degrees C, using a Couette viscometer for shear rates ranging from 0.2 to128 s(-1).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

All PFC concentrations increased plasma and whole blood viscosity for the same Hct. Viscosity values similar to physiological ones were observed at Hct 13%, with MFG - PFC 4, 8 g/dL and HAS - PFC 15 g/dL; at Hct 20%, with MFG - PFC 4g/dL and HAS - PFC 15 g/dL; at Hct 30%, and HAS - PFC 4, 8 g/dL.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that this PFC emulsion increases plasma and blood viscosity and that among the three studied volume expanders, the interaction with MFG can result in viscosity values above the physiological one even at low Hct values. Our results suggest that such increased blood viscosity could decrease skeletal muscle oxygen pressure.

Calcium, carbonic anhydrase and gastric acid secretion

Previous data concerning the action of calcium (Ca) on gastric acid secretion (GAS) indicated that calcium ions increase GAS elicited by gastrin released through a vagal mechanism, and also by a direct effect on parietal cells. Our research showed that the stimulating effect of calcium on gastric acid secretion can be antagonized by verapamil administration, which reduces gastric acid secretion . In the present study we followed the effect induced by administration of calcium and Ca-chelating agents (disodium EDTA) on gastric acid secretion and on carbonic anhydrase (CA) activity. We selected two groups of healthy volunteers: Group I (n=21) received a single i.v. dose of CaCl2 (15 mg/kg b.w.), whereas Group II (n=22) received a single i.v. dose of disodium EDTA (5 mg/kg b.w.). We determined blood calcium before and after treatment, gastric acid secretion at 2 hours. erythrocyte CA II activity, and CA IV activity in membrane parietal cells, which were isolated from gastric mucosa obtained by endoscopic biopsy. Assessment of carbonic anhydrase activity was achieved by the stopped-flow method. In Group I calcium administration increased blood calcium, HCl output, CA II and CA IV activity as compared to initial values. In Group II, disodium EDTA reduced blood calcium, HCl output, CA II and CA IV activity as compared to initial values. The results demonstrated that increased blood calcium and GAS values after calcium administration correlated with the increase of erythrocyte CA II and parietal cell CA IV activity, while disodium EDTA induced a reversed process. Our results also show that cytosolic CA II and membrane CA IV values are sensitive to calcium changes and they directly depend on these levels. Our data suggest that intra- and extracellular pH changes induced by carbonic anhydrase might account for the modulation of the physiological and pathological secretory processes in the organism.

Vasoconstrictive drugs increase carbonic anhydrase I in vascular smooth muscle while vasodilating drugs reduce the activity of this isozyme by a direct mechanism of action

Carbonic anhydrase (CA) is a zinc enzyme that catalyses the reversible hydration reaction of CO2 and plays a major role in the acid-base balance. We have previously shown that certain vasoconstrictive therapeutic agents increase CA I activity whereas vasodilating drugs reduce the activity of this isozyme by a direct mechanism of action. In this paper we studied the effect of other vasoconstrictive and vasodilating agents on CA I activity in order to elucidate the involvement of vascular smooth muscle CA I in vasoconstrictive and vasodilating processes. We studied the in vitro effects of noradrenaline, prostaglandin F2 alpha, thromboxane A2, leukotriene B4, angiotensin II, vasopressin, indomethacin, prazosin, hydralazine, clonidine, reserpine, prostaglandin I2, indapamide, furosemide, amlodipine, verapamil and irbesartan on purified human red blood cell CA I and vascular smooth muscle CA I isolated from rabbits. In vivo, we selected six groups of five rabbits each, which were administered the following substances in acute experiments: orciprenaline (group 1), desmopressin (group 2), verapamil (group 3), irbesartan (group 4), acetazolamide (group 5) and placebo (control group). Vascular smooth muscle CA I activity and systolic blood pressure were determined and compared with those of the control group. In vitro results showed that all the vasoconstrictive agents studied increased purified and human erythrocyte CA I activity as well as vascular smooth muscle CA I, while vasodilating substances reduced the activity of isozyme by a direct mechanism of action. The same results obtained in vivo showed that activation of vascular smooth muscle CA I increased blood pressure while its inhibition reduced blood pressure. The results of this study suggest that pHi changes, induced by activating or inhibiting CA I in vascular smooth muscle, might be responsible for changes in vascular tonus.

Indomethacin activates carbonic anhydrase and antagonizes the effect of the specific carbonic anhydrase inhibitor acetazolamide, by a direct mechanism of action

OBJECTIVES

In this paper we investigated the effect of indomethacin, acetazolamide and their combination in vitro and in vivo on carbonic anhydrase (CA) isozymes.

METHOD

In vitro experiments followed the effect of the two substances at concentrations between 10(-8)-10(-4) M on purified human red cell CA I and II as well as on human gastric mucosa CA IV using dose-response relationships. Kinetic studies were also performed. The effects of single and combined administration of indomethacin and acetazolamide on red cell CA and on gastric acid secretion were studied in vivo.

RESULTS

Indomethacin, in vitro and in vivo. induces an increase in erythorcyte CA I and CA II activity. Acetazolamide, a specific inhibitor of CA, reduces the activity of CA I and CA II from red cells. Indomethacin completely antagonizes CA activity, i.e. abolishes the inhibitory effect of acetazolamide on CA. In humans, an increase or decrease in erythrocyte CA II activity is correlated with an increase or decrease in gastric acid secretion.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show that indomethacin, a known cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitor, is also an activator of CA. Our data also prove that indomethacin is not only an activator of CA but also antagonizes the effect of acetazolamide, a specific inhibitor of this enzyme. In view of the role of CA in acid-base balance as well as the fact that an increase or decrease in its activity is accompanied by an increase or decrease in intra- and extracellular pH, our results suggest that: firstly, CA activation induced by indomethacin might cause changes in COX activity; secondly, PGs are synthetized as a consequence of the changes in COX activity, a hypothesis that requires further study.

The mechanism of action of angiotensin II is dependent on direct activation of vascular smooth muscle carbonic anhydrase I

Our previous studies have shown that angiotensin II increases carbonic anhydrase activity both in vitro and in vivo. In this study we investigated in vitro the effect of angiotensin II on carbonic anhydrase I and II from erythrocytes and on arteriolar vascular smooth muscle carbonic anhydrase I. We also studied in vitro and in vivo the effect of angiotensin II receptor blockers (irbesartan and candesartan) on purified carbonic anhydrase I and II, on vascular smooth muscle carbonic anhydrase I and on arterial blood pressure in humans and in animals. In vitro results showed that angiotensin II is a direct and stronger activator of carbonic anhydrase I than II. Angiotensin II receptor blockers reduced mainly carbonic anhydrase I activity and completely antagonized the activating effect of angiotensin II both on purified and on vascular smooth muscle carbonic anhydrase I. Our in vivo experiments showed that irbesartan and candesartan are powerful inhibitors of carbonic anhydrase I both in erythrocytes (in humans) and in vascular smooth muscles (in animals). In humans, irbesartan and candesartan progressively reduce arterial blood pressure in hypertensive subjects, in parallel with progressive reduction of erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase I activity. We believe that angiotensin II could have a dual mechanism of action: (1) angiotensin interacting with its receptor to form a stimulus-receptor complex; (2) the same stimulus directly acts on the carbonic anhydrase I isozyme (which might be coupled with angiotensin II receptors), ensuring an adequate pH for stimulus-receptor coupling for signal transmission into the cell and hence vasoconstriction.

Catecholamine-induced vasoconstriction is sensitive to carbonic anhydrase I activation

We studied the relationship between alpha- and beta-adrenergic agonists and the activity of carbonic anhydrase I and II in erythrocyte, clinical and vessel studies. Kinetic studies were performed. Adrenergic agonists increased erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase as follows: adrenaline by 75%, noradrenaline by 68%, isoprenaline by 55%, and orciprenaline by 62%. The kinetic data indicated a non-competitive mechanism of action. In clinical studies carbonic anhydrase I from erythrocytes increased by 87% after noradrenaline administration, by 71% after orciprenaline and by 82% after isoprenaline. The increase in carbonic anhydrase I paralleled the increase in blood pressure. Similar results were obtained in vessel studies on piglet vascular smooth muscle. We believe that adrenergic agonists may have a dual mechanism of action: the first one consists of a catecholamine action on its receptor with the formation of a stimulus-receptor complex. The second mechanism proposed completes the first one. By this second component of the mechanism, the same stimulus directly acts on the carbonic anhydrase I isozyme (that might be functionally coupled with adrenergic receptors), so that its activation ensures an adequate pH for stimulus-receptor coupling for signal transduction into the cell, resulting in vasoconstriction.

Hypotensive effect of calcium channel blockers is parallel with carbonic anhydrase I inhibition

In this article we studied in vitro and in vivo the effect of calcium channel blockers (verapamil and amlodipine) on erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase I activity, on carbonic anhydrase I isolated from vascular smooth muscles, and on arterial blood pressure values in human beings and in animals. Our in vitro and in vivo results have shown that verapamil and amlodipine are strong inhibitors of carbonic anhydrase I both in erythrocytes (in human beings) and in vascular smooth muscles (in animals). In human beings calcium channel blockers reduce arterial blood pressure in subjects with hypertension and progressively reduce erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase I activity. We assume that verapamil and amlodipine possess a dual mechanism of action: the first mechanism consists of their action on calcium channels, and the second mechanism, proposed by us, shows that verapamil and amlodipine inhibit vascular smooth muscle carbonic anhydrase I activity with consecutive pH increase. The increase of pH might be an additional factor involved in intracellular calcium influx through calcium channels. This dual mechanism of action would bring new data regarding the hypotensive effect of verapamil and amlodipine, effects that might also be parallel and dependent on carbonic anhydrase I inhibition.

Calcium channel blockers reduce blood pressure in part by inhibiting vascular smooth muscle carbonic anhydrase I

Calcium channel blockers are a group of drugs used for the treatment of hypertension. Carbonic anhydrase (CA) I detected in vascular smooth muscle and in other cells in the organism has a major role in the acid-base balance and in vascular processes. Our previous work has proven that verapamil inhibits CA activity by a direct mechanism of action. Starting from our results in this article we studied in vitro and in vivo the effect of calcium channel blockers (verapamil and amlodipine) on erythrocyte CA I, on vascular smooth muscles CA I, and on arterial blood pressure values in human and in animals. Our in vitro and in vivo results have proved that verapamil and amlodipine are strong CA I inhibitors both in human erythrocytes and also in vascular smooth muscles in animals. In humans, calcium channel blockers studied here progressively reduce arterial blood pressure in hypertensive subjects, in parallel with progressive lowering of erythrocyte CA I activity in the normal range in normotensive subjects. From our point of view verapamil and amlodipine possess a dual mechanism of action: the first well-known action consists of their action on calcium channels. The second mechanism, suggested by us, directly acts on the vascular smooth muscle CA I isozyme, so that its inhibition should ensure an adequate pH for calcium ions transport through the channels, having as result vasodilation. This double mechanism could explain the hypotensive effect of verapamil and amlodipine, with a mechanism that partially dependent on CA I inhibition.

The inhibitory effect of diuretics on carbonic anhydrases

A classification of diuretics mainly comprises mercurials; carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, thiazide diuretics, loop diuretics, inhibitors of renal epithelial Na+ channels and antagonists of mineralocorticoid receptors. We studied in this paper the relationship between diuretics and carbonic anhydrase (CA). Our in vitro and in vivo results show that all diuretics inhibit carbonic anhydrase II and renal CA IV. Further, our data show that they also inhibit epithelial cell CA in the renal tubules. The changes in intracellular pH (pHi) induced by these diuretics through CA inhibition would influence: a) the coupling to their receptors affecting information transmission to the epithelial cells of renal tubules as well as diuretic response; b) the decrease of Na+ exchanger (thiazide), of Na+ - K+ - 2Cl- relation (loop diuretics), Na+ channel blocking in distal and collecting tubules (amiloride, triamterene), as well as the antagonism between spironolactone and aldosterone at the mineralocorticoid receptor level, suggest that this competition might also be produced on CA II and on renal CA IV, which, in turn, could be influenced by pH-induced changes, the binding of the diuretic to its membrane receptor as well as the activity of the brush membrane or cytosolic pump. Furosemide and indapamide, diuretics known to have vasodilating effects, induce the fall of blood pressure that parallels the decrease of CA I activity. These results show the involvement of CA in the mechanism of action of the diuretics and in their actions associated with vasodilating effects. pH changes resulting from the action of CA contribute to the action of diuretics. All diuretics inhibit CA isozymes.

Vasodilatory effect of diuretics is dependent on inhibition of vascular smooth muscle carbonic anhydrase by a direct mechanism of action

Five years ago, our in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrated for the first time that diuretic agents such as furosemide, hydrochlorothiazide, amiloride, triamterene and spironolactone inhibit carbonic anhydrase (CA) I, II and renal CA IV by a direct mechanism of action. In this paper we investigate the relationship between diuretics and CA I in the vasodilatory mechanism. Both in vitro (on purified CA I, erythrocyte CA I and smooth muscle CA I) and in vivo (in human and rabbits) we studied the effect of acetazolamide, hydrochlorothiazide, indapamide, furosemide, amiloride and triamterene on purified CA I, on human erythrocyte CA I, as well as on CA I isolated from vascular smooth muscle. Our results demonstrate that in vitro all diuretics inhibit CA I by a direct mechanism of action. Inhibition reached 100% with acetazolamide, 45% with hydrochlorothiazide, 82% with indapamide, 85% with furosemide, 68% with amiloride and 58% with triamterene. In vivo, similar inhibition of erythrocyte and smooth muscle CA I was obtained, being parallel with a reduction in arterial blood pressure values. Our data show that in addition to their already known mechanisms, diuretics also inhibit CA in vascular smooth muscle. Our results suggest that this mechanism is achieved by means of pH changes induced by CA I inhibition.

Carbonic anhydrase I inhibition by nitric oxide: implications for mediation of the hypercapnia-induced vasodilator response

1. At present, CO2 is considered to be the most important factor in regulating cerebral blood flow by modification of the interstitial fluid and extracellular pH, but the mechanism by which hypercapnia produces vasodilation is still controversial. In the present paper we investigated the effect of hypercapnia on carbonic anhydrase (CA) activity. We also studied the combined effects of CO2 with either indomethacin or an L-arginine analogue on CA activity. 2. Nine groups of 12 rabbits each were established. Groups 1-4 were ventilated with a mixture of 10% CO2, 21% O2 and 69% N2 for 20, 60, 120 and 180 min. Group 5 rabbits received 15 mg/kg bodyweight, i.v., indomethacin and, after 1 h, were ventilated with a mixture of 10% CO2, 21% O2 and 69% N2 for 2 h. Group 6 animals were ventilated with a mixture of 10% CO2, 21% O2 and 69% N2 for 2 h and then received indomethacin. Group 7 rabbits received 100 mg/kg bodyweight, i.v., NG-monomethyl-L-arginine (L-NMMA) and, after 1 h, were ventilated with a mixture of 10% CO2, 21% O2 and 69% N2 for 2 h. Group 8 rabbits were ventilated for 2 h with a mixture of 10% CO2, 21% O2 and 69% N2 and were then administered L-NMMA. Group 9 rabbits received L-NMMA treatment concomitant with ventilation for 2 h with a mixture of 10% CO2, 21% O2 and 69% N2. In all groups, the erythrocyte CA activity was measured, as well as PaCO2 before and after ventilation or treatment. 3. The present study shows that CO2 reduces CA I activity down to complete inhibition and antagonizes the activating effects of indomethacin and L-NMMA on this isozyme. Our data prove that nitric oxide- and prostaglandin-induced CA I inhibition is involved in the vasodilation produced by hypercapnia. These results suggest that, due to subsequent pH changes, CA I is directly implicated in the modulation of vascular processes in the organism.

Erythrocyte superoxide dismutase activity in patients with digest cancer: adjuvant diagnosis test

Previous studies showed that a common feature of tumor cells is their low of superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. Our research proved that carcinogenic substances reduce erythrocyte SOD activity, while anticarcinogenic ones increase it and that in vitro SOD assessments revealed a direct mechanism of action. In this paper we determined erythrocyte SOD activity in patients with digestive and extra-digestive cancers. We studied eight groups of patients with five different forms of cancer (histopathologically confirmed) and three groups of volunteers. Group 1 (n = 86), patients with esophageal cancer; Group 2 (n = 94), patients with gastric cancer; Group 3 (n = 79), patients with colorectal cancer; Group 4 (n = 71), patients with hepatic cancer; Group 5 (n = 73), patients with pancreatic cancer; Group 6 (n = 85), patients with with other diseases, but of the same organs; Group 7 (n = 97), healthy volunteers; Group 8 (n = 91), hypertensive patients. We determined the erythrocyte SOD activity using the catecholamine oxidation method. Erythrocyte SOD from the first 5 groups had a mean value of 1.91 +/- 0.78 EU as compared with Group 6 which presented an activity of 6.08 +/- 1.02 (P < 0.001) and Group7 in which the activity was 6.54 +/- 1.23 (P < 0, 001). Erythrocyte SOD activity is significantly reduced (by 2-3 fold) in all groups of cancer patients studied. Being accessible, simple and rapid, erythrocyte SOD activity determination could constitute an adjuvant test in diagnosis of these types of cancer. Taking into account our previous results which prove that carcinogenic substances inhibit SOD activity by a direct mechanism, we suggest that further research is required in this exciting field.

Omeprazole has a dual mechanism of action: it inhibits both H(+)K(+)ATPase and gastric mucosa carbonic anhydrase enzyme in humans (in vitro and in vivo experiments)

In this study our experiments followed in vitro and in vivo the effect of omeprazole on purified and erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase (CA) I and II isozymes, as well as on gastric mucosa CA IV in humans. Our in vitro results show that omeprazole-induced inhibition of purified CA I and CA II and gastric mucosa CA IV is dose- and pH-dependent. In vivo, the i.v. administration of omeprazole in humans in therapeutic doses produced a decrease in erythrocyte CA I and CA II activity, as well as in gastric mucosa CA I, II, and IV. Regarding CA IV, the results lead to the conclusion that omeprazole selectively inhibits gastric mucosa CA IV and does not modify the activity of the same isozyme from the kidney and lung, indicating organ specificity. Our results strongly suggest that omeprazole has a dual mechanism of action: H(+)K(+)ATPase inhibition and gastric mucosa CA inhibition, and that these enzymes may be functionally coupled. This 2-fold mechanism of action could explain the greater effectiveness of substituted benzimidazoles as compared with other therapies.

A new concept regarding the mechanism of action of omeprazole

OBJECTIVES

In this paper we investigated in humans and in animals the in vitro and in vivo effect of omeprazole upon purified and erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase (CA) I and II isozymes, as well as on gastric mucosa CA IV.

METHOD

In vitro, we observed the effect of omeprazole at concentrations between 10(-8)-10(-4) M on purified CA I and CA II, and also on isolated gastric mucosa CA IV, renal and pulmonary CA IV activity, using the dose-response relationship. In vivo, we studied the effect of omeprazole (Losec) on gastric CA I, II and IV, as well as on erythrocyte CA I and CA II, in humans and in animals.

RESULTS

In vitro omeprazole inhibits pH-dependent purified CA I and CA II and gastric mucosa CA IV according to dose-response relationship. In vivo, the i.v. administration of omeprazole in rabbits and in humans shows a decrease of erythrocyte CA I and CA II activity as well as of gastric mucosa CA I, II and IV.

CONCLUSIONS

Omeprazole in its active form (sulfenamide) selectively inhibits gastric mucosa CA IV and does not modify the activity of the same isozyme from the kidney and lung proving that the enzyme has an organ specificity. Our results lead to the conclusion that omeprazole possesses a dual mechanism of action: both H+K+ATPase and CA inhibition--enzymes that could be in a functional coupling. This dual mechanism of action might explain the higher effectiveness of treatment using substituted benzimidazole inhibitors compared to other therapies.