Hepatoprotection of a Standardized Extract of Cultured Lentinula edodes Mycelia against Liver Injury Induced by Ischemia-Reperfusion and Partial Hepatectomy

A standardized extract of cultured Lentinula edodes mycelia (ECLM, AHCC®) has been shown to have beneficial effects on organ metabolism. ECLM has been indicated to have liver protective properties by suppressing inflammatory responses. The pathogenesis of hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury is thought to involve the induction of inflammatory mediators. However, whether ECLM affects inflammatory mediators caused by warm hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury and partial hepatectomy (HIRI+PH) has not been clarified. In this study, we evaluated the protective effects of ECLM against liver damage caused by HIRI+PH. Rats were fed a normal diet (HIRI+PH) or a normal diet with 2% ECLM (HIRI+PH and ECLM) for ten days, then the liver and duodenal ligament were clamped and subjected to 15 min of hepatic ischemia. After 70% hepatectomy, the inflow occlusion was released, and liver and blood samples were collected at 3, 6, and 24 h. The effect of ECLM on mortality induced by 30 min of ischemia and hepatectomy was evaluated. The results showed that ECLM attenuated pathological liver damage, including apoptosis, in the rats treated with HIRI+PH, and decreased serum aminotransferase activity; ECLM decreased mRNA levels of the inflammation-related genes inducible nitric oxide synthase and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 1, and increased mRNA levels of interleukin 10, an anti-inflammatory cytokine; ECLM increased hepatocyte growth factor mRNA levels and Ki-67 labeled nuclei in the liver at 24 h; ECLM significantly reduced HIRI+PH-induced mortality. In conclusion, ECLM may prevent HIRI+PH-induced liver injury in part by suppressing various inflammatory responses and promoting liver regeneration.

Sulforaphane Is Protective against Warm Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury and Partial Hepatectomy in Rats

Sulforaphane (SFN) has various beneficial effects on organ metabolism. However, whether SFN affects inflammatory mediators induced by warm hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury (HIRI) is unclear. To investigate the hepatoprotective effects of SFN using an in vivo model of HIRI and partial hepatectomy (HIRI + PH), rats were subjected to 15 min of hepatic ischemia with blood inflow occlusion, followed by 70% hepatectomy and release of the inflow occlusion. SFN (5 mg/kg) or saline was randomly injected intraperitoneally 1 and 24 h before ischemia. Alternatively, ischemia was prolonged for 30 min to evaluate the effect on mortality. The influence of SFN on the associated signaling pathways was analyzed using the interleukin 1β (IL-1β)-treated primary cultured rat hepatocytes. In the HIRI + PH-treated rats, SFN reduced serum liver enzyme activities and the frequency of pathological liver injury, such as apoptosis and neutrophil infiltration. SFN suppressed tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) mRNA expression and inhibited nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activation by HIRI + PH. Mortality was significantly reduced by SFN. In IL-1β-treated hepatocytes, SFN suppressed the expression of inflammatory cytokines and NF-κB activation. Taken together, SFN may have hepatoprotective effects in HIRI + PH in part by inhibiting the induction of inflammatory mediators, such as TNF-α, via the suppression of NF-κB in hepatocytes.

Two new monoterpene esters from the pericarps of Alpinia zerumbet

Two new monoterpene esters (1 and 2) and four known compounds (3-6) were isolated from the pericarps of Alpinia zerumbet. Their structures were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic analyses and their anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated by monitoring their inhibitory effects on the interleukin-1β-induced production of nitric oxide in primary cultured rat hepatocytes. The new compound 1 and cardamonin 3 showed inhibitory activities with IC50 values of 17.6 ± 1.1 and 10.2  ±  1.3 µM, respectively, which are comparable to that of the positive control NG-methyl-L-arginine acetate salt.

Hydrophobic constituents of Polygonum multiflorum roots promote renal erythropoietin expression in healthy mice

The roots of Polygonum multiflorum Thunberg (Polygonaceae) are used as a crude drug Kashu that is considered to improve blood deficiency based on a Kampo concept. Kashu has been included in Kampo formulas, such as Tokiinshi, which is used to treat eczema and dermatitis with itchiness by inhibiting inflammation and facilitating blood circulation in the skin. However, the effects of P. multiflorum roots on erythropoiesis are unclear. Previously, we isolated six phenolic constituents from an ethyl acetate (EtOAc)-soluble fraction of P. multiflorum root extract and identified them as (E)-2,3,5,4'-tetrahydroxystilbene-2-O-β-D-glucopyranoside [(E)-THSG], emodin, emodin-8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, physcion, physcion-8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, and catechin. To examine whether P. multiflorum roots facilitate erythropoiesis, the EtOAc-soluble fraction was orally administered to healthy ICR mice. When compared with mice fed a standard diet alone (Controls), the mice fed a diet including the EtOAc-soluble fraction exhibited significantly higher serum erythropoietin (Epo) levels. The renal Epo mRNA levels in EtOAc-soluble fraction-administered mice were significantly higher than those in the control mice. Then, we administered roxadustat, which is a drug to treat the patient suffering with renal anemia by specifically inhibiting hypoxia-inducible factor prolyl hydroxylases. Roxadustat slightly increased renal Epo mRNA levels in healthy mice. Administration of (E)-THSG, a major constituent, significantly increased serum Epo levels. It is likely that (E)-THSG may facilitate the process to convert inactive renal Epo-producing cells to active Epo-producing cells. Collectively, it is implied that (E)-THSG in the EtOAc-soluble fraction of P. multiflorum roots may primarily improve blood deficiency of Kampo concept by promoting erythropoiesis.

COMBINATION THERAPY WITH A SENSE OLIGONUCLEOTIDE TO INDUCIBLE NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE MRNA AND HUMAN SOLUBLE THROMBOMODULIN IMPROVES SURVIVAL OF SEPSIS MODEL RATS AFTER PARTIAL HEPATECTOMY

ABSTRACT

Sepsis after a major hepatectomy is a critical problem. In septic shock, the inflammatory mediator, nitric oxide (NO), is overproduced in hepatocytes and macrophages. The natural antisense (AS) transcripts, non-coding RNAs, are transcribed from a gene that encodes inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). iNOS AS transcripts interact with and stabilize iNOS mRNAs. A single-stranded "sense oligonucleotide" (designated as SO1) corresponding to the iNOS mRNA sequence inhibits mRNA-AS transcript interactions and reduces iNOS mRNA levels in rat hepatocytes. In contrast, recombinant human soluble thrombomodulin (rTM) treats disseminated intravascular coagulopathy by suppressing coagulation, inflammation, and apoptosis. In this study, the combination therapy of SO1 and a low dose of rTM was evaluated for hepatoprotection in a rat septic shock model after partial hepatectomy. Rats underwent 70% hepatectomy, followed by intravenous (i.v.) injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) after 48 h. SO1 was injected (i.v.) simultaneously with LPS, whereas rTM was injected (i.v.) 1 h before LPS injection. Similarly to our previous report, SO1 increased survival after LPS injection. When rTM, which has different mechanisms of action, was combined with SO1, it did not interfere with the effect of SO1 and showed a significant increase in survival compared with LPS alone treatment. In serum, the combined treatment decreased NO levels. In the liver, the combined treatment inhibited iNOS mRNA and protein expression. A decreased iNOS AS transcript expression by the combined treatment was also observed. The combined treatment decreased mRNA expression of the inflammatory and pro-apoptotic genes while increasing that of the anti-apoptotic gene. Furthermore, the combined treatment reduced the number of myeloperoxidase-positive cells. These results suggested that the combination of SO1 and rTM has therapeutic potential for sepsis.

Identification of Anti-Inflammatory Compounds from Peucedanum praeruptorum Roots by Using Nitric Oxide-Producing Rat Hepatocytes Stimulated by Interleukin 1β

The roots of Peucedanum praeruptorum Dunn and Angelica decursiva Franchet et Savatier are designated Zenko, which is a crude drug defined by the Japanese Pharmacopoeia. This crude drug is used as an antitussive and an expectorant and is included in the Kampo formula Jinsoin, which improves cough, fever, and headache. Although the anti-inflammatory effects of this crude drug have been determined, the constituents responsible for this effect remain unknown. To investigate biologically active compounds, rat hepatocytes were used, which produce proinflammatory mediator nitric oxide (NO) in response to proinflammatory cytokine interleukin 1β (IL-1β). A methanol extract of P. praeruptorum roots, which suppressed IL-1β-induced NO production, was fractionated into three crude fractions (ethyl acetate (EtOAc)-soluble, n-butanol-soluble, and water-soluble fractions) based on hydrophobicity. The EtOAc-soluble fraction markedly inhibited NO production. After this fraction was purified, three biologically active compounds were identified as praeruptorins A, B, and E, the contents of which were high. A comparison of their activities indicated that praeruptorin B exhibited the highest potency to inhibit NO production by decreasing inducible NO synthase expression and suppressed the expression of mRNAs encoding proinflammatory cytokines. Collectively, the three praeruptorins may primarily contribute to the anti-inflammatory effects of P. praeruptorum roots.

White-skinned sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) acutely suppresses postprandial blood glucose elevation by improving insulin sensitivity in normal rats

Long-term administration of Ipomoea batatas L. (white-skinned sweet potato, WSSP) has been reported to help manage type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in humans and animals; however, the mechanisms of blood glucose regulation by WSSP remain unclear. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the acute effects of WSSP on blood glucose homeostasis under normal conditions and the underlying mechanisms. Three fractions of WSSP (≤10, 10-50, and >50 kDa) were obtained via ultracentrifugation. Rats were subjected to an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) after a single administration of WSSP. The insulin tolerance test (ITT) and pyruvate tolerance test (PTT) were performed to evaluate insulin sensitivity and gluconeogenesis, respectively. Single WSSP administration markedly reduced blood glucose levels as revealed by the OGTT. Serum insulin levels were not increased by WSSP treatment. Blood glucose levels during ITT were significantly reduced due to WSSP treatment. WSSP treatment activated the phosphorylation of Akt, thereby activating insulin signaling in the skeletal muscles and liver. The ≤10 kDa fraction considerably reduced blood glucose levels per the OGTT and ITT. In contrast, gluconeogenesis in PTT and the expression of key enzymes in hepatocytes were suppressed by the >50 kDa fraction. This study demonstrated that WSSP acutely reduced postprandial blood glucose levels by improving insulin sensitivity in skeletal muscles in normal rats, which was attributed to constituents with a molecular weight of ≤10 kDa. Moreover, WSSP treatment suppressed gluconeogenesis in the liver, for which constituents of >50 kDa were responsible. Thus, WSSP can acutely regulate blood glucose homeostasis via multiple mechanisms. Since postprandial hyperglycemia leads to the onset of T2DM, WSSP, as a functional food, may possess potential active compounds that prevent T2DM.

Omeprazole Increases Survival Through the Inhibition of Inflammatory Mediaters in Two Rat Sepsis Models

BACKGROUND

Omeprazole (OMZ) is a proton pump inhibitor that is used to reduce gastric acid secretion, but little is known about its possible liver protective effects. This study investigated whether OMZ has beneficial effects in rat septic models of LPS-induced liver injury after D-galactosamine (GalN) treatment and 70% hepatectomy (PH), and to determine the mechanisms of OMZ in an in vitro model of liver injury.

METHODS

In the in vivo models, the effects of OMZ were examined 1 h before treatments in both models on survival, nuclear factor (NF)-κB activation, histopathological analysis, and proinflammatory mediator expression in the liver and serum. In the in vitro model, primary cultured rat hepatocytes were treated with IL-1β in the presence or absence of OMZ. The influence of OMZ on nitric oxide (NO) product and inducible NO synthase (iNOS) induction and on the associated signaling pathway was analyzed.

RESULTS

OMZ increased survival and decreased tumor necrosis factor-alpha, iNOS, cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant 1, IL-6, and IL-1β mRNA expression, and increased IL-10 mRNA expression in the livers of both GaIN/LPS- and PH/LPS-treated rats. Necrosis and apoptosis were inhibited by OMZ in GaIN/LPS rats, but OMZ had no effects on necrosis in PH/LPS rats. OMZ inhibited iNOS induction partially through suppression of NF-κB signaling in hepatocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

OMZ inhibited the induction of several inflammatory mediators, resulting in the prevention of LPS-induced liver injury after GalN liver failure and PH, although OMZ showed different doses and mechanisms in the two models.

Hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory profile of sokeikakketsuto and makyoyokukanto in primary cultured rat hepatocytes

Background: Sokeikakketsuto (SOK) is a Kampo medicine that can mitigate several types of pain, including arthralgia, neuralgia, low back pain, and myalgia, which may be introduced for the treatment of neuropathic pain in anti-cancer therapy. Considering that several Kampo medicines are known to have hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects, we investigated the pharmacological mechanism of SOK in hepatocytes. Additionally, we examined another Kampo medicine, makyoyokukanto (MAK), as a reference as it has been reported to have similar efficacy for neuropathic pain.Methods: SOK or MAK was incubated with rat primary cultured hepatocytes treated with interleukin (IL)-1β. The induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), nitric oxide (NO) production, iNOS signaling pathways, and the expression of other inflammatory mediators was investigated.Results: IL-1β activated iNOS induction, followed by NO production. SOK and MAK reduced the expression of iNOS mRNA and its protein and decreased NO production. SOK and MAK also decreased the levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and increased the levels of IL-6 and IL-1β. Transfection experiments with iNOS promoter-luciferase constructs revealed that MAK reduced iNOS mRNA synthesis and stability; however, SOK only reduced mRNA synthesis. Both medicines suppressed the activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB but did not block the upregulation of type I IL-1 receptor in two essential signaling pathways.Conclusions: SOK and MAK could prevent NO production by inhibiting iNOS gene expression, partly through NF-κB activation, in inflamed hepatocytes. However, both medicines may have different mechanisms of action in the treatment of injured organs.

Detection of Decarboxylated Amino Acids after in Vitro Protease Digestion of the Hydrophilic Fraction of Crude Drug Extracts

Many constituents of crude drugs in Japanese Kampo formulas are thought to function as pro-drugs, whose pharmacological activity is manifested after oral administration. Proteins and peptides in crude drugs may be digested and metabolized in the digestive tract and liver. However, few studies have reported the pharmacological activity of peptides in crude drugs. Here, we applied an analysis using LC-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to identify the compounds derived from six crude drugs that are assumed to have anti-inflammatory effects. To simulate in vivo protease digestion, each water-soluble fraction of the crude drug extracts was treated with proteases, including endoproteinases and exopeptidases. Amines in the resultant digests were modified by 6-aminoquinolyl-N-hydroxysuccinimidyl carbamate and analyzed using LC-MS/MS, which demonstrated the presence of four decarboxylated amino acids (primary amines). In the digest of the hydrophilic fraction of the fruit of Ziziphus jujuba Miller var. inermis Rehder (Taiso), isobutylamine, isoamylamine, and 2-methylbutylamine were identified, which may be derived from valinyl, leucinyl, and isoleucinyl residues, respectively. Additionally, tyramine possibly derived from tyrosyl residues was identified in the digests of all the crude drugs. In primary cultured rat hepatocytes treated with interleukin-1β, all these decarboxylated amino acids suppressed the production of nitric oxide, a proinflammatory mediator. Our approach, i.e., in vitro protease digestion and LC-MS/MS analysis, suggests that decarboxylated amino acids may be formed in vivo from peptides and may be responsible for the anti-inflammatory effect of crude drugs included in Kampo medicine.

Comparative Analysis of Anti-inflammatory Activity of the Constituents of the Rhizome of Cnidium officinale Using Rat Hepatocytes

The rhizome of Cnidium officinale (Umbelliferae) (known as Senkyu in Japan; COR) has been used as a crude drug in Japanese Kampo formulas, such as Jumihaidokuto (to treat eczema and urticaria) and Kakkontokasenkyushin'i (to treat rhinitis). COR contains phthalides, which are thought to be potent principal constituents. Few studies have been reported about the comparison of anti-inflammatory activity of COR constituents. We aimed to identify the constituents in COR and compare their anti-inflammatory activity. COR was extracted with methanol and fractionated into ethyl acetate (EtOAc)-soluble, n-butanol-soluble, and water-soluble fractions. Primary cultured rat hepatocytes were used to assess anti-inflammatory activity by monitoring the interleukin (IL)-1β-induced production of nitric oxide (NO), an inflammatory mediator. The EtOAc-soluble fraction significantly suppressed NO production without showing cytotoxicity in IL-1β-treated hepatocytes, whereas the n-butanol-soluble fraction showed less potency, and the water-soluble fraction did not significantly affect the NO levels. Four constituents were isolated from the EtOAc-soluble fraction and identified as senkyunolide A, (3S)-butylphthalide, neocnidilide, and cnidilide. Among these phthalides and (Z)-ligustilide, senkyunolide A and (Z)-ligustilide efficiently suppressed NO production in hepatocytes, whereas the others showed less potency in the suppression of NO production. Furthermore, senkyunolide A decreased the levels of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) protein and mRNA, as well as the levels of mRNAs encoding proinflammatory cytokines (e.g., tumor necrosis factor α) and chemokine C-C motif ligand 20. These results suggest that senkyunolide A may cause the anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects of COR by suppressing the genes involved in inflammation.

Gamma-Ray Observation of the Cygnus Region in the 100-TeV Energy Region

We report observations of gamma-ray emissions with energies in the 100-TeV energy region from the Cygnus region in our Galaxy. Two sources are significantly detected in the directions of the Cygnus OB1 and OB2 associations. Based on their positional coincidences, we associate one with a pulsar PSR J2032+4127 and the other mainly with a pulsar wind nebula PWN G75.2+0.1, with the pulsar moving away from its original birthplace situated around the centroid of the observed gamma-ray emission. This work would stimulate further studies of particle acceleration mechanisms at these gamma-ray sources.

First Detection of sub-PeV Diffuse Gamma Rays from the Galactic Disk: Evidence for Ubiquitous Galactic Cosmic Rays beyond PeV Energies

We report, for the first time, the long-awaited detection of diffuse gamma rays with energies between 100 TeV and 1 PeV in the Galactic disk. Particularly, all gamma rays above 398 TeV are observed apart from known TeV gamma-ray sources and compatible with expectations from the hadronic emission scenario in which gamma rays originate from the decay of π^{0}'s produced through the interaction of protons with the interstellar medium in the Galaxy. This is strong evidence that cosmic rays are accelerated beyond PeV energies in our Galaxy and spread over the Galactic disk.

Bitter melon fruit extract has a hypoglycemic effect and reduces hepatic lipid accumulation in ob/ob mice

Bitter melon (Momordica charantia L.) is a vegetable and has been used as traditional medicine. Recently, we reported that bitter melon fruit extracts and its ethyl acetate (EtOAc)-soluble fraction markedly suppressed the expression of proinflammatory genes, including the inducible nitric oxide synthase gene. However, it is unclear whether bitter melon exhibits antidiabetic effects. In this study, we showed that cucurbitacin B, a cucurbitane-type triterpenoid, was present in an EtOAc-soluble fraction and suppressed nitric oxide production in hepatocytes. When the EtOAc-soluble fraction was administered for 7 days to ob/ob mice, a type 2 diabetes mellitus model, the mice fed with this fraction exhibited a significant decrease in body weight and blood glucose concentrations compared with the mice fed without the fraction. The administration of the fraction resulted in significant increases in serum insulin concentrations and the levels of both insulin receptor mRNA and protein in the ob/ob mouse liver. The EtOAc-soluble fraction decreased the interleukin-1β mRNA expression, as well as hepatic lipid accumulation in hepatocytes. Taken together, these results indicate that administration of an EtOAc-soluble fraction improved hyperglycemia and hepatic steatosis, suggesting that this fraction may be responsible for both the antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory effects of bitter melon fruit.

Effects of medicinal plant ipe on expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in inerleukin-1β-stimulated Hepatocytes

Background: The traditional medicine ipe is thought to have various pharmacological actions including anticancer and anti-inflammatory activities. However, there is little scientific evidence to demonstrate the organ-protective effects of ipe. The prevention of nitric oxide (NO) production in inflamed livers by inducible NO synthase (iNOS) is an indicator of liver protection. We examined proinflammatory cytokine-stimulated hepatocytes as a simple “in vitro liver injury model” to determine ipe’s liver-protective effects of ipe and clarify its mechanisms.  Methods: Primary cultured hepatocytes were treated with interleukin (IL)-1β in the presence or absence of ipe. The induction of iNOS and its signal pathway were analyzed. Results: Ipe inhibited the production of NO stimulated by IL-1β and showed the greatest effect (more than 90% inhibition) at 2 mg/ml. Ipe decreased iNOS protein and mRNA expression. Ipe decreased NF-κB activation (its translocation to the nucleus and DNA binding), although there was no effect on IκBα degradation. Ipe inhibited Akt activation, followed by decreased the type I IL-1 receptor mRNA and protein levels. Transfection experiments revealed that ipe decreased both activities of iNOS promoter transactivation and mRNA stability. In support of the latter observation, ipe inhibited the expression of the antisense transcript of the iNOS gene. Conclusion: Ipe blocked IκB kinase and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt signal pathways, which caused the reduction of iNOS mRNA synthesis and its stability. This resulted in the inhibition of iNOS induction and NO production. Ipe may have a potent beneficial effect against NO-mediated injury in organs including the liver. Key words: ipe, inducible nitric oxide synthase, liver injury, primary cultured hepatocytes, nuclear factor-κB, the type I interleukin-1 receptor, iNOS antisense transcript

The Proton Pump Inhibitor Lansoprazole Has Hepatoprotective Effects in In Vitro and In Vivo Rat Models of Acute Liver Injury

BACKGROUND/AIMS

The proton pump inhibitor lansoprazole (LPZ) is clinically used to reduce gastric acid secretion, but little is known about its possible hepatoprotective effects. This study aimed to investigate the hepatoprotective effects of LPZ and its potential mechanisms using in vitro and in vivo rat models of liver injury.

METHODS

For the in vitro model of liver injury, primary cultured rat hepatocytes were treated with interleukin-1β in the presence or absence of LPZ. The influence of LPZ on inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) induction and nitric oxide (NO) production and on the associated signaling pathways was analyzed. For the in vivo model, rats were treated with D-galactosamine (GalN) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The effects of LPZ on survival and proinflammatory mediator expression (including iNOS and tumor necrosis factor-α) in these rats were examined.

RESULTS

LPZ inhibited iNOS induction partially through suppression of the nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway in hepatocytes, thereby reducing potential liver injury from excessive NO levels. Additionally, LPZ increased survival by 50% and decreased iNOS, tumor necrosis factor-α, and cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant-1 mRNA expression in the livers of GalN/LPS-treated rats. LPZ also inhibited nuclear factor-kappa B activation by GalN/LPS.

CONCLUSIONS

LPZ inhibits the induction of several inflammatory mediators (including cytokines, chemokines, and NO) partially through suppression of nuclear factor-kappa B, resulting in the prevention of fulminant liver failure. The therapeutic potential of LPZ for liver injuries warrants further investigation.

First Detection of Photons with Energy beyond 100 TeV from an Astrophysical Source

We report on the highest energy photons from the Crab Nebula observed by the Tibet air shower array with the underground water-Cherenkov-type muon detector array. Based on the criterion of a muon number measured in an air shower, we successfully suppress 99.92% of the cosmic-ray background events with energies E>100  TeV. As a result, we observed 24 photonlike events with E>100  TeV against 5.5 background events, which corresponds to a 5.6σ statistical significance. This is the first detection of photons with E>100  TeV from an astrophysical source.

Antiinflammatory constituents of Atractylodes chinensis rhizome improve glomerular lesions in immunoglobulin A nephropathy model mice

The crude drug Sojutsu, as defined by the Japanese Pharmacopoeia, is the rhizome of Atractylodes lancea De Candolle, Atractylodes chinensis Koidzumi, or their interspecific hybrids (Asteraceae). Sojutsu is one of the traditional Kampo formulas, which are administered to patients suffering from stomach disorders, edema, and nephrotic syndrome. Although antiinflammatory effects of Sojutsu have been reported, its effects on the liver and kidney have not been extensively investigated. Here, we used a Sojutsu sample identified as A. chinensis rhizome and isolated several constituents from its ethyl acetate (EtOAc)-soluble fraction that decreased production of the proinflammatory mediator nitric oxide (NO) in interleukin 1β-treated rat hepatocytes. Among the constituents in this fraction, atractylodin showed the highest activity to suppress NO production, whereas hinesol, β-eudesmol, and α-bisabolol showed low activity. Atractylodin decreased the levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase, tumor necrosis factor α, and lipocalin 2 messenger RNAs (mRNAs). The EtOAc-soluble fraction of the A. chinensis rhizome extract was administered daily for 20 weeks to high immunoglobulin A (HIGA) mice, whose pathological findings resemble human immunoglobulin A nephropathy. This fraction decreased the weight of white adipose tissue and decreased mesangial proliferation and immunoglobulin A deposition in glomeruli. These results indicate that the EtOAc-soluble fraction, which included antiinflammatory constituents, may be responsible for improvement of the mesangial lesions in HIGA mice.

The cosmic ray energy spectrum measured with the new Tibet hybrid experiment

We have upgraded the new Tibet ASgamma experiment in China since 2014 to measure the chemical composition of cosmic rays around the knee. This hybrid experiment consist of an air-shower-core detector array (YAC-II) to detect high energy electromagnetic component, the Tibet air-shower array (Tibet-III) and a large underground water-Cherenkov muon-detector array (MD). We have carried out a detailed air-shower Monte Carlo (MC) simulation to study the performance of the hybrid detectors by using CORSIKA (version 7.5000), which includes EPOS-LHC, QGSJETII-04, SIBYLL2.1 and SIBYLL2.3 hadronic interaction models. The preliminary results of the interaction model checking above 50 TeV energy region are reported in this paper, and the primary proton and helium spectra in the energy range 50 TeV to 1015 eV was derived from YAC-I data and is smoothly connected with direct observation data at lower energies and also with our previously reported works at higher energies within statistical errors. The knee of the (P+He) spectra is located around 400 TeV. The interaction model dependence in deriving the primary (P+He) spectra is found to be small (less than 25% in absolute intensity, 10% in position of the knee), and the composition model dependence is less than 10% in absolute intensity.

Assessment of anti-inflammatory effects of Japanese Kampo medicine versus functional foods

Background: Traditional Japanese drugs called Kampo medicine are widely used in Japan. Each Kampo medicine consists of several crude drugs, most of which are derived from medicinal plants. Clinical administration has empirically evaluated the effects of Kampo medicine In contrast, functional foods are prepared from foods and edible plants (e.g., herbs, vegetables, and fruits). Due to the relatively low content of a pharmacologically active constituents in functional foods, their effectiveness has not been well evaluated and thus should be better investigated. Kampo medicine and functional foods have beneficial effects for humans, and many of them exhibit anti-inflammatory effects. Here, we discuss the principles and methods to assess the anti-inflammatory effects of functional foods and Kampo medicine.To investigate pharmacological effects of functional foods and Kampo medicines, their constituents should be isolated to identify their chemical structures. Cell-based studies are commonly performed to evaluate anti-inflammatory effects of the constituents in Kampo medicine and functional foods. Primary cultured rat hepatocytes are used and produce pro-inflammatory mediators, including nitric oxide. When an extract from a Kampo medicine, functional food, or a respective constituent is added to the medium, pro-inflammatory mediator production decreases, and the anti-inflammatory activity is estimated. Animal experiments have been performed using disease models, such as the endotoxemia model for animals, to which bacterial endotoxin is administered. Administering an effective functional food or Kampo medicine improves the survival of the model animals. The action of the anti-inflammatory effects of functional foods and Kampo medicines can be investigated by the above-mentioned methods. The studies using cells and animals will provide a basis for the safe and effective use of functional foods and Kampo medicine in humans to treat diseases or improve health conditions.Keywords: herbal drug, Kampo medicine, nitric oxide, inflammation, hepatocytes.

The anti-inflammatory effects of Indonesian and Japanese bitter melon (Momordica charantia L.) fruit extracts on interleukin-1β-treated hepatocytes

Background: Bitter melon, Momordica charantia L. (Cucurbitaceae), grows in tropical to temperate regions in Asia, including Indonesia and Japan. Bitter melon contains triterpenoids, steroidal glycosides, flavonoids, and alkaloids. The green immature fruit of bitter melon is a popular vegetable in Indonesia and Japan and has been used as a traditional Indonesian medicine (Jamu) to treat microbial infections and diabetes mellitus. However, there are currently few reports about the pharmacological effects of the constituents of bitter melon.Objective: To compare the effects of Indonesian and Japanese bitter melon, the production of pro-inflammatory mediators, such as nitric oxide (NO) and pro-inflammatory cytokines, was monitored.Methods: Immature fruits of bitter melons collected from Indonesia and Japan were lyophilized and extracted with methanol. The resultant extracts were fractionated by hydrophobicity into ethyl acetate-soluble (A), n-butanol-soluble (B), and water-soluble (C) fractions. Primary cultured hepatocytes prepared from rat liver were treated with interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and each extract or fraction. Nitrite in the medium was measured, and the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) value was determined. Lactate dehydrogenase activity in the medium was measured to monitor cytotoxicity. The expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) was detected by western blot analysis. The mRNA levels were measured by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Results: Indonesian and Japanese bitter melon extracts (BMEs) suppressed NO production by IL-1β-treated hepatocytes without showing cytotoxicity. The IC50 values of the BMEs were 86 μg/mL (Indonesian) and 171 μg/mL (Japanese). Both BMEs suppressed iNOS protein expression. Fractions A and B of both BMEs suppressed NO production. The IC50 values of the Indonesian BME fractions A and B were comparable to those of Japanese BME. Fraction A of both BMEs decreased the levels of iNOS protein and mRNA, as well as those of pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNAs. Fraction C of both BMEs did not affect NO production.Conclusion: The ethyl acetate-soluble fraction (A) of Indonesian and Japanese BMEs exhibited a comparable ability to suppress the induction of the iNOS and pro-inflammatory cytokine genes. These data suggest that hydrophobic constituents in fraction A, such as cucurbitane-type triterpenoids, may be responsible for the observed anti-inflammatory effects of bitter melon from Indonesia and Japan.Keywords: Momordica charantia, nitric oxide, inflammation, Jamu, Goya.

Test of the hadronic interaction models SIBYLL2.3, EPOS-LHC and QGSJETII- 04 with Tibet EAS core data

A hybrid experiment has been started by the ASγ experiment at Yangbajing (4300m a.s.l.) in Tibet since May 2009, that consists of a high-energy air-shower-core array (YAC-I) and a high-density air-shower array (Tibet-III). In this paper, we report our results to check the hadronic interaction models SIBYLL2.3, SIBYLL2.1, EPOS-LHC and QGSJETII-04 in the multi-tens TeV energy region using YAC-I+Tibet-III experimental data from May 2009 through January 2010. The effective live time is calculated as 106.05 days. The results show that the description of transverse momentum, inelastic cross-section and inelasticity for the 4 hadronic interaction models is consistent with YAC-I experimental data within 15% systematic errors range in the forward region below 100 TeV. Among them, the EPOS-LHC model is the best hadronic interaction model. Furthermore, we find that the H4a composition model is the best one below the 100 TeV energy region.

On the Solar Cycle Variation of the Solar Diurnal Anisotropy of Multi-TeV Cosmic-ray Intensity Observed with the Tibet Air Shower Array

We analyze the temporal variation of the solar diurnal anisotropy of the multi-TeV cosmic-ray intensity observed with the Tibet air shower array from 2000 to 2009, covering the maximum and minimum of the 23rd solar cycle. We comfirm that a remarkable additional anisotropy component is superposed on the Compton-Getting anisotropy at 4.0 TeV, while its amplitude decreases at higher energy regions. In constrast to the additional anisotropy reported by the Matsushiro experiment at 0.6 TeV, we find the residual component measured by Tibet at multi-TeV energies is consistent with being stable, with a fairly constant amplitude of 0.041% ± 0.003% and a phase at around 07.17 ± 00.16 local solar time at 4.0 TeV. This suggests the additional anisotropy observed by the Tibet experiment could result from mechanisms unrelated to solar activities.

Glutathione inhibits expression of the proinflammatory biomarker inducible nitric oxide synthase in hepatocytes

Background: Intracellular glutathione (GSH) plays an important regulatory role in the host response to liver injury. However, there have been few scientific reports on the anti-inflammatory effects of GSH. In the inflamed liver, proinflammatory cytokines stimulate liver cells, followed by expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Excessive nitric oxide (NO) levels produced by iNOS are one of the factors involved in liver injury. Therefore, inhibiting iNOS induction is important for preventing liver injury. This study aimed to investigate the protective effects of GSH on the liver by examining interleukin (IL)-1β-stimulated hepatocytes.Methods: Primary cultured rat hepatocytes were treated with IL-1β in the presence or absence of GSH. Induction of iNOS and its signaling pathway were analyzed.Results: Addition of GSH decreased IL-1β-induced iNOS protein and mRNA expression levels, which resulted in inhibition of NO production. GSH also decreased tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and IL-6 mRNA expression. GSH blocked “type I IL-1 receptor upregulation”, one of the essential signaling pathways for iNOS induction, through inactivation of an upstream kinase, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt. In contrast, GSH had no effects on degradation of IκB and activation of NF-ĸB (nuclear translocation and its DNA binding). Transfection experiments revealed that GSH reduced iNOS mRNA levels at the promoter transactivation and mRNA stabilization steps. Delayed administration of GSH after IL-1β addition also inhibited iNOS induction. Conclusions: Our study suggests that GSH affects induction of inflammatory mediators, including iNOS and TNF-α, indicating its therapeutic potential for organ injuries, especially for the liver.Keywords: glutathione, inducible nitric oxide synthase, liver injury, primary cultured hepatocytes, type I interleukin-1 receptor, tumor necrosis factor-α

Identification of the Chemical Constituents in Ginger (Zingiber officinale) Responsible for Thermogenesis

To compare the thermogenic properties of crude drugs derived from ginger, the activities to peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α) of methanol extracts of “Shokyo” (dried rhizome of Z. officinale var. rubens), “Kankyo” (steamed and dried rhizome of Z. officinale var. rubens), “Red ginger” (Indonesian dried rhizome of Z. officinale var. rubrum) and “White ginger” (Indonesian dried rhizome of Z. officinale var. amarum), were examined. The extracts of the four specimens were analyzed by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The results showed that “Shokyo” and “White ginger” strongly stimulated PGC-1α and that the amount of [10]-shogaol (6) in these was higher than in “Kankyo” and “Red ginger”. Gingerol-related compounds were isolated or prepared in order to identify the compounds responsible for stimulating PGC-1α. As a result, [10]-gingerol (3), [10]-shogaol (6), [10]-gingerdiols (11, 12) and [10]-gingerdiols 3,5-diacetate (17, 18) were identified as the active constituents, while the main constituents, [6]-gingerol (1) and [6]-shogaol (4), did not show any significant PGC-1α activity. These results suggest that gingerol-related compounds with long alkyl side chains contribute to the thermogenic properties of ginger.

Metformin inhibits expression of the proinflammatory biomarker inducible nitric oxide synthase in hepatocytes

Background: Metformin is used to treat patients with type II diabetes. However, there are few scientific reports on its anti-inflammatory effects. In the inflamed liver, proinflammatory cytokines stimulate liver cells, followed by inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression. Excessive NO levels produced by iNOS have been implicated as a factor in liver injury. As a result, it is essential to inhibit iNOS induction to prevent liver injury.Objective: This study aimed to investigate liver protective effects of metformin by examining interleukin (IL)-1β-stimulated hepatocytes. Methods: Primary cultured rat hepatocytes were treated with interleukin (IL)-1β in the presence or absence of metformin. iNOS induction and its signaling pathway were analyzed.Results: Metformin decreased iNOS protein and mRNA expression, resulting in the inhibition of hepatic NO production. Metformin also reduced tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and IL-6 mRNA expression. Metformin inhibited an essential signaling pathway for iNOS induction, type I IL-1 receptor upregulation. Transfection experiments revealed that metformin reduced iNOS mRNA levels through both promoter transactivation and mRNA stabilization. Delayed metformin administration after IL-1β addition also inhibited iNOS induction. Conclusions: Metformin affects the induction of inflammatory mediators including iNOS and TNF-α, demonstrating its therapeutic potential for organ injuries, including the liver.Keywords: metformin, inducible nitric oxide synthase, liver injury, primary cultured hepatocytes, type I interleukin-1 receptor, tumor necrosis factor-α 

Prevalence and Conditions of Urinary Incontinence among the Elderly

In Japan, elderly disorders and diseases have markedly increased in recent years, because of rapid aging and an increasing number of older persons. The situation is creating serious social and community problems. These disorders, particularly dysuria and urinary incontinence (UI), disturb the quality of life (QOL) in latelife. Few reports on UI have been published, but precise investigation into the community level remains to be made. Our presentation is the development, implementation and evaluation of elderly UI in Kumamoto Prefecture. This study includes 2,304 people (male: 856, female: 1,448), over 65 years of age, living in two different communities; one is an urban (K) and the other is a typical rural area (S). The rate of UI was in homebound elderly persons, male: 4.7%, female: 11.3%, and in nursing home residents, male: 16.2%, female: 23.2%. The condition of UI was: almost Urinary Urgency in male (61.5%), and Stress Incontinence (such as, caused by coughing, sneezing, and exercise) in female (46.3%). The influence of UI on the activity of daily life was investigated. Most of the male cases were giving concerns for family and community. In contrast, females hesited to participate in group excursions and outdoor exercise, and had a tendency to live alone or indoors. However, most persons (81.5%) with UI did not visit a physician. From this investigation, we conclude that a community health care program and public support system are essential for proper understanding and solution of the elderly UI problem.

Evaluation of the Interplanetary Magnetic Field Strength Using the Cosmic-Ray Shadow of the Sun

We analyze the Sun's shadow observed with the Tibet-III air shower array and find that the shadow's center deviates northward (southward) from the optical solar disk center in the "away" ("toward") interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) sector. By comparing with numerical simulations based on the solar magnetic field model, we find that the average IMF strength in the away (toward) sector is 1.54±0.21_{stat}±0.20_{syst} (1.62±0.15_{stat}±0.22_{syst}) times larger than the model prediction. These demonstrate that the observed Sun's shadow is a useful tool for the quantitative evaluation of the average solar magnetic field.

A sense oligonucleotide to inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA increases the survival rate of rats in septic shock

Natural antisense transcripts (asRNAs) that do not encode proteins are transcribed from rat, mouse, and human genes, encoding inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), which catalyzes the production of the inflammatory mediator nitric oxide (NO). In septic shock, NO is excessively produced in hepatocytes and macrophages. The iNOS asRNA interacts with and stabilizes iNOS mRNA. We found that single-stranded 'sense' oligonucleotides corresponding to the iNOS mRNA sequence reduced iNOS mRNA levels by interfering with the mRNA-asRNA interactions in rat hepatocytes. The iNOS sense oligonucleotides that were substituted with phosphorothioate bonds and locked nucleic acids efficiently decreased the levels of iNOS mRNA and iNOS protein. In this study, the gene expression patterns in the livers of two endotoxemia model rats with acute liver failure were compared. Next, we optimized the sequence and modification of the iNOS sense oligonucleotides in interleukin 1β-treated rat hepatocytes. When a sense oligonucleotide was simultaneously administered with d-galactosamine and bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to rats, their survival rate significantly increased compared to the rats administered d-galactosamine and LPS alone. In the livers of the sense oligonucleotide-administered rats, apoptosis in the hepatocytes markedly decreased. These results suggest that natural antisense transcript-targeted regulation technology using iNOS sense oligonucleotides may be used to treat human inflammatory diseases, such as sepsis and septic shock.

Curcumin protects liver inflammation by suppressing expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in primary cultured rat hepatocytes

Background: Curcumin has beneficial effects on organ metabolism. However, there is little evidence that curcumin affects inflammatory mediators, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and nitric oxide (NO). In an inflamed liver, proinflammatory cytokines stimulate liver cells, followed by the induction of inducible NO synthase (iNOS). Excessive NO produced by iNOS is one of the factors in liver injury. Therefore, inhibiting iNOS induction for preventing liver injury is important.Objective: This study aimed to investigate liver protective effects of curcumin by examining interleukin (IL)-1β-stimulated hepatocytes.Methods: Primary cultured rat hepatocytes were treated with IL-1β in the presence or absence of curcumin. Induction of NO production and iNOS, and the signaling pathway of iNOS were analyzed.Results: Simultaneous addition of IL-1β and curcumin decreased expression levels of iNOS protein and mRNA, resulting in inhibition of NO production. Curcumin also reduced mRNA expression of TNF-α and IL-6. Curcumin inhibited two essential signaling pathways for iNOS induction, NF-κB activation and type I IL-1 receptor upregulation. Transfection experiments revealed that curcumin reduced iNOS mRNA levels at the promoter activation and mRNA stabilization steps. Delayed administration of curcumin after IL-1β addition also inhibited iNOS induction.Conclusions: Curcumin affects induction of inflammatory mediators, such as iNOS and TNF-α, in part through the inhibition of NF-κB activation in hepatocytes. Curcumin may have therapeutic potential for organ injuries, including the liver.Key words: curcumin, inducible nitric oxide synthase, liver injury, primary cultured hepatocytes, nuclear factor-κB, type I interleukin-1 receptor, tumor necrosis factor-α. 

Identification of PGC-1α activating constituents in Zingiberaceous crude drugs

The activity of Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α) as an index of thermogenesis induced by four Indonesian Zingiberaceous crude drugs, Boesenbergia rotunda, Curcuma longa, Kaempferia galanga, Zingiber montanum, was examined, and GC-MS analyses of extracts of these drugs were performed. The results showed that activation of PGC-1α by K. galanga was high, whereas no activation was shown for the other drugs. Ethyl p-methoxycinnamate and ethyl cinnamate were identified as the PGC-1α activating compounds of K. galanga. Furthermore, study on the structure-activity relationship revealed that ethyl p-methoxycinnamate has the strongest activity among the cinnamic acid derivatives. This suggests that the ester structure and the methoxy group are important factors responsible for the PGC-1α activity.