Comparison of CTX-M encoding plasmids present during the early phase of the ESBL pandemic in western Sweden

Plasmids encoding blaCTX-M genes have greatly shaped the evolution of E. coli producing extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL-E. coli) and adds to the global threat of multiresistant bacteria by promoting horizontal gene transfer (HGT). Here we screened the similarity of 47 blaCTX-M -encoding plasmids, from 45 epidemiologically unrelated and disperse ESBL-E. coli strains, isolated during the early phase (2009-2014) of the ESBL pandemic in western Sweden. Using optical DNA mapping (ODM), both similar and rare plasmids were identified. As many as 57% of the plasmids formed five ODM-plasmid groups of at least three similar plasmids per group. The most prevalent type (28%, IncIl, pMLST37) encoded blaCTX-M-15 (n = 10), blaCTX-M-3 (n = 2) or blaCTX-M-55 (n = 1). It was found in isolates of various sequence types (STs), including ST131. This could indicate ongoing local HGT as whole-genome sequencing only revealed similarities with a rarely reported, IncIl plasmid. The second most prevalent type (IncFII/FIA/FIB, F1:A2:B20) harboring blaCTX-M-27, was detected in ST131-C1-M27 isolates, and was similar to plasmids previously reported for this subclade. The results also highlight the need for local surveillance of plasmids and the importance of temporospatial epidemiological links so that detection of a prevalent plasmid is not overestimated as a potential plasmid transmission event in outbreak investigations.

Identification and characterization of plasmids carrying the mobile colistin resistance gene mcr-1 using optical DNA mapping

Objectives

Colistin is a last-resort antibiotic, but there has been a rapid increase in colistin resistance, threatening its use in the treatment of infections with carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE). Plasmid-mediated colistin resistance, in particular the mcr-1 gene, has been identified and WGS is the go-to method in identifying plasmids carrying mcr-1 genes. The goal of this study is to demonstrate the use of optical DNA mapping (ODM), a fast, efficient and amplification-free technique, to characterize plasmids carrying mcr-1.

Methods

ODM is a single-molecule technique, which we have demonstrated can be used for identifying plasmids harbouring antibiotic resistance genes. We here applied the technique to plasmids isolated from 12 clinical Enterobacterales isolates from patients at a major hospital in Thailand and verified our results using Nanopore long-read sequencing.

Results

We successfully identified plasmids encoding the mcr-1 gene and, for the first time, demonstrated the ability of ODM to identify resistance gene sites in small (∼30 kb) plasmids. We further identified bla _CTX-M genes in different plasmids than the ones encoding mcr-1 in three of the isolates studied. Finally, we propose a cut-and-stretch assay, based on similar principles, but performed using surface-functionalized cover slips for DNA immobilization and an inexpensive microscope with basic functionalities, to identify the mcr-1 gene in a plasmid sample.

Conclusions

Both ODM and the cut-and-stretch assay developed could be very useful in identifying plasmids encoding antibiotic resistance in hospitals and healthcare facilities. The cut-and-stretch assay is particularly useful in low- and middle-income countries, where existing techniques are limited.

Lighting Up DNA with the Environment-Sensitive Bright Adenine Analogue qAN4

The fluorescent adenine analogue qAN4 was recently shown to possess promising photophysical properties, including a high brightness as a monomer. Here we report the synthesis of the phosphoramidite of qAN4 and its successful incorporation into DNA oligonucleotides using standard solid-phase synthesis. Circular dichroism and thermal melting studies indicate that the qAN4-modification has a stabilizing effect on the B-form of DNA. Moreover, qAN4 base-pairs selectively with thymine with mismatch penalties similar to those of mismatches of adenine. The low energy absorption band of qAN4 inside DNA has its peak around 358 nm and the emission in duplex DNA is partly quenched and blue-shifted (ca. 410 nm), compared to the monomeric form. The spectral properties of the fluorophore also show sensitivity to pH; a property that may find biological applications. Quantum yields in single-stranded DNA range from 1-29 % and in duplex DNA from 1-7 %. In combination with the absorptive properties, this gives an average brightness inside duplex DNA of 275 M^-1  cm^-1 , more than five times higher than the most used environment-sensitive fluorescent base analogue, 2-aminopurine. Finally, we show that qAN4 can be used to advantage as a donor for interbase FRET applications in combination with adenine analogue qA_nitro as an acceptor.

Getting DNA and RNA out of the dark with 2CNqA: a bright adenine analogue and interbase FRET donor

With the central role of nucleic acids there is a need for development of fluorophores that facilitate the visualization of processes involving nucleic acids without perturbing their natural properties and behaviour. Here, we incorporate a new analogue of adenine, 2CNqA, into both DNA and RNA, and evaluate its nucleobase-mimicking and internal fluorophore capacities. We find that 2CNqA displays excellent photophysical properties in both nucleic acids, is highly specific for thymine/uracil, and maintains and slightly stabilises the canonical conformations of DNA and RNA duplexes. Moreover, the 2CNqA fluorophore has a quantum yield in single-stranded and duplex DNA ranging from 10% to 44% and 22% to 32%, respectively, and a slightly lower one (average 12%) inside duplex RNA. In combination with a comparatively strong molar absorptivity for this class of compounds, the resulting brightness of 2CNqA inside double-stranded DNA is the highest reported for a fluorescent base analogue. The high, relatively sequence-independent quantum yield in duplexes makes 2CNqA promising as a nucleic acid label and as an interbase Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) donor. Finally, we report its excellent spectral overlap with the interbase FRET acceptors qAnitro and tCnitro, and demonstrate that these FRET pairs enable conformation studies of DNA and RNA.

Interbase FRET in RNA: from A to Z

Interbase FRET can reveal highly detailed information about distance, orientation and dynamics in nucleic acids, complementing the existing structure and dynamics techniques. We here report the first RNA base analogue FRET pair, consisting of the donor tC^O and the non-emissive acceptor tC_nitro. The acceptor ribonucleoside is here synthesised and incorporated into RNA for the first time. This FRET pair accurately reports the average structure of A-form RNA, and its utility for probing RNA structural changes is demonstrated by monitoring the transition from A- to Z-form RNA. Finally, the measured FRET data were compared with theoretical FRET patterns obtained from two previously reported Z-RNA PDB structures, to shed new light on this elusive RNA conformation.

Synthesis, oligonucleotide incorporation and fluorescence properties in DNA of a bicyclic thymine analogue

Fluorescent base analogues (FBAs) have emerged as a powerful class of molecular reporters of location and environment for nucleic acids. In our overall mission to develop bright and useful FBAs for all natural nucleobases, herein we describe the synthesis and thorough characterization of bicyclic thymidine (bT), both as a monomer and when incorporated into DNA. We have developed a robust synthetic route for the preparation of the bT DNA monomer and the corresponding protected phosphoramidite for solid-phase DNA synthesis. The bT deoxyribonucleoside has a brightness value of 790 M⁻¹cm⁻¹ in water, which is comparable or higher than most fluorescent thymine analogues reported. When incorporated into DNA, bT pairs selectively with adenine without perturbing the B-form structure, keeping the melting thermodynamics of the B-form duplex DNA virtually unchanged. As for most fluorescent base analogues, the emission of bT is reduced inside DNA (4.5- and 13-fold in single- and double-stranded DNA, respectively). Overall, these properties make bT an interesting thymine analogue for studying DNA and an excellent starting point for the development of brighter bT derivatives.

Pentacyclic adenine: a versatile and exceptionally bright fluorescent DNA base analogue

A highly fluorescent, non-perturbing, pentacyclic adenine analog was designed, synthesized, incorporated into DNA and photophysical evaluated.

Emissive base analogs are powerful tools for probing nucleic acids at the molecular level. Herein we describe the development and thorough characterization of pentacyclic adenine (pA), a versatile base analog with exceptional fluorescence properties. When incorporated into DNA, pA pairs selectively with thymine without perturbing the B-form structure and is among the brightest nucleobase analogs reported so far. Together with the recently established base analog acceptor qA_nitro, pA allows accurate distance and orientation determination via Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) measurements. The high brightness at emission wavelengths above 400 nm also makes it suitable for fluorescence microscopy, as demonstrated by imaging of single liposomal constructs coated with cholesterol-anchored pA–dsDNA, using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy. Finally, pA is also highly promising for two-photon excitation at 780 nm, with a brightness (5.3 GM) that is unprecedented for a base analog.

Fluorescent nucleobase analogues for base-base FRET in nucleic acids: synthesis, photophysics and applications

Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) between a donor nucleobase analogue and an acceptor nucleobase analogue, base–base FRET, works as a spectroscopic ruler and protractor. With their firm stacking and ability to replace the natural nucleic acid bases inside the base-stack, base analogue donor and acceptor molecules complement external fluorophores like the Cy-, Alexa- and ATTO-dyes and enable detailed investigations of structure and dynamics of nucleic acid containing systems. The first base–base FRET pair, tC^O–tC_nitro, has recently been complemented with among others the adenine analogue FRET pair, qAN1–qA_nitro, increasing the flexibility of the methodology. Here we present the design, synthesis, photophysical characterization and use of such base analogues. They enable a higher control of the FRET orientation factor, κ², have a different distance window of opportunity than external fluorophores, and, thus, have the potential to facilitate better structure resolution. Netropsin DNA binding and the B-to-Z-DNA transition are examples of structure investigations that recently have been performed using base–base FRET and that are described here. Base–base FRET has been around for less than a decade, only in 2017 expanded beyond one FRET pair, and represents a highly promising structure and dynamics methodology for the field of nucleic acids. Here we bring up its advantages as well as disadvantages and touch upon potential future applications.

Toward Complete Sequence Flexibility of Nucleic Acid Base Analogue FRET

Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) using fluorescent base analogues is a powerful means of obtaining high-resolution nucleic acid structure and dynamics information that favorably complements techniques such as NMR and X-ray crystallography. Here, we expand the base-base FRET repertoire with an adenine analogue FRET-pair. Phosphoramidite-protected quadracyclic 2'-deoxyadenosine analogues qAN1 (donor) and qA_nitro (acceptor) were synthesized and incorporated into DNA by a generic, reliable, and high-yielding route, and both constitute excellent adenine analogues. The donor, qAN1, has quantum yields reaching 21% and 11% in single- and double-strands, respectively. To the best of our knowledge, this results in the highest average brightness of an adenine analogue inside DNA. Its potent emissive features overlap well with the absorption of qA_nitro and thus enable accurate FRET-measurements over more than one turn of B-DNA. As we have shown previously for our cytosine analogue FRET-pair, FRET between qAN1 and qA_nitro positioned at different base separations inside DNA results in efficiencies that are highly dependent on both distance and orientation. This facilitates significantly enhanced resolution in FRET structure determinations, demonstrated here in a study of conformational changes of DNA upon binding of the minor groove binder netropsin. Finally, we note that the donor and acceptor of our cytosine FRET-pair, tC^O and tC_nitro, can be conveniently combined with the acceptor and donor of our current adenine pair, respectively. Consequently, our base analogues can now measure base-base FRET between 3 of the 10 possible base combinations and, through base-complementarity, between all sequence positions in a duplex.

Development of bright fluorescent quadracyclic adenine analogues: TDDFT-calculation supported rational design

Fluorescent base analogues (FBAs) comprise a family of increasingly important molecules for the investigation of nucleic acid structure and dynamics. We recently reported the quantum chemical calculation supported development of four microenvironment sensitive analogues of the quadracyclic adenine (qA) scaffold, the qANs, with highly promising absorptive and fluorescence properties that were very well predicted by TDDFT calculations. Herein, we report on the efficient synthesis, experimental and theoretical characterization of nine novel quadracyclic adenine derivatives. The brightest derivative, 2-CNqA, displays a 13-fold increased brightness (εΦF = 4500) compared with the parent compound qA and has the additional benefit of being a virtually microenvironment-insensitive fluorophore, making it a suitable candidate for nucleic acid incorporation and use in quantitative FRET and anisotropy experiments. TDDFT calculations, conducted on the nine novel qAs a posteriori, successfully describe the relative fluorescence quantum yield and brightness of all qA derivatives. This observation suggests that the TDDFT-based rational design strategy may be employed for the development of bright fluorophores built up from a common scaffold to reduce the otherwise costly and time-consuming screening process usually required to obtain useful and bright FBAs.

Second-generation fluorescent quadracyclic adenine analogues: environment-responsive probes with enhanced brightness

Fluorescent base analogues comprise a group of increasingly important molecules for the investigation of nucleic acid structure, dynamics, and interactions with other molecules. Herein, we report on the quantum chemical calculation aided design, synthesis, and characterization of four new putative quadracyclic adenine analogues. The compounds were efficiently synthesized from a common intermediate through a two-step pathway with the Suzuki-Miyaura coupling as the key step. Two of the compounds, qAN1 and qAN4, display brightnesses (εΦF) of 1700 and 2300, respectively, in water and behave as wavelength-ratiometric pH probes under acidic conditions. The other two, qAN2 and qAN3, display lower brightnesses but exhibit polarity-sensitive dual-band emissions that could prove useful to investigate DNA structural changes induced by DNA-protein or -drug interactions. The four qANs are very promising microenvironment-sensitive fluorescent adenine analogues that display considerable brightness for such compounds.