Global risk of pharmaceutical contamination from highly populated developing countries

Global pharmaceutical industry has relocated from the west to Asian countries to ensure competitive advantage. This industrial relocation has posed serious threats to the environment. The present study was carried out to assess the possible pharmaceutical contamination in the environment of emerging pharmaceutical manufacturing countries (Bangladesh, China, India and Pakistan). Although these countries have made tremendous progress in the pharmaceutical sector but most of their industrial units discharge wastewater into domestic sewage network without any treatment. The application of untreated wastewater (industrial and domestic) and biosolids (sewage sludge and manure) in agriculture causes the contamination of surface water, soil, groundwater, and the entire food web with pharmaceutical compounds (PCs), their metabolites and transformed products (TPs), and multidrug resistant microbes. This pharmaceutical contamination in Asian countries poses global risks via product export and international traveling. Several prospective research hypotheses including the development of new analytical methods to monitor these PCs/TPs and their metabolites, highly resistant microbial strains, and mixture toxicity as a consequence of pharmaceutical contamination in these emerging pharmaceutical exporters have also been proposed based on the available literature.

Ecological risk assessment of pharmaceuticals in the receiving environment of pharmaceutical wastewater in Pakistan

The pharmaceutical industry of Pakistan is growing with an annual growth rate of 10%. Besides this growth, this industry is not complying with environmental standards, and discharging its effluent into domestic wastewater network. Only limited information is available about the occurrence of pharmaceutical compounds (PCs) in the environmental matrices of Pakistan that has motivated us to aim at the occurrence and ecological risk assessment of 11 PCs of different therapeutic classes in the wastewater of pharmaceutical industry and in its receiving environmental matrices such as sludge, solid waste and soil samples near the pharmaceutical formulation units along Shiekhupura road, Lahore, Pakistan. Target PCs (paracetamol, naproxen, diclofenac, ibuprofen, amlodipine, rosuvastatin, ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, moxifloxacin, sparfloxacin and gemifloxacin) were quantified using in-house developed HPLC-UV. Ibuprofen (1673µg/L, 6046µg/kg, 1229µg/kg and 610µg/kg), diclofenac (836µg/L, 4968µg/kg, 6632µg/kg and 257µg/kg) and naproxen (464µg/L, 7273µg/kg, 4819µg/kg and 199µg/kg) showed the highest concentrations among 11 target PCs in wastewater, sludge, solid waste and soil samples, respectively. Ecological risk assessment, in terms of risk quotient (RQ), was also carried out based on the maximum measured concentration of PCs in wastewater. The maximum RQ values obtained were with paracetamol (64 against daphnia), naproxen (177 against fish), diclofenac (12,600 against Oncorhynchus mykiss), ibuprofen (167,300 against Oryzias latipes), ofloxacin (81,000 against Pseudomonas putida) and ciprofloxacin (440 against Microcystis aeruginosa). These results show a high level of ecological risk due to the discharge of untreated wastewater from pharmaceutical units. This risk may further lead to food web contamination and drug resistance in pathogens. Thus, further studies are needed to detect the PCs in crops as well as the government should strictly enforce environmental legislation on these pharmaceutical units.

Occurrence, fate, and mass balance of different classes of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in an anaerobic-anoxic-oxic wastewater treatment plant in Xiamen, China

In this study, the occurrence and fate of 49 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) were investigated in an anaerobic-anoxic-oxic (A2/O) wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) for seven consecutive days using 24-h composite sampling technique. Special emphasis was placed to understand the distribution of PPCPs in dissolved and adsorbed phase, and to evaluate PPCP fate in different treatment units. Among the 49 PPCPs, 40 PPCPs in influent, 36 in effluent, 29 in sludge and 23 in suspended solids were detected at least once during sampling. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and a stimulant were predominant PPCPs in influent whereas antibiotics were predominant in sludge, effluent and suspended solids. Removal efficiencies from the aqueous phase based on the dissolved PPCPs showed variable contribution in removing different PPCPs under screen and grit chamber, anaerobic treatment, anoxic treatment, oxic treatment and sedimentation-UV treatments, with the highest removal percentage by anaerobic process in terms of both individual and overall treatment. Mass load analysis showed that 352 g PPCPs enter the WWTP daily while 14.5 g and 58.1 g were discharged through effluent and excess sludge to the receiving sea water and soil applications, respectively. Mass balance analysis based on both aqueous and suspended PPCPs showed 280 g (79.4%) mass of influent PPCPs was lost along the wastewater treatment processes, mainly due to degradation/transformation.

Fate and mass balance of bisphenol analogues in wastewater treatment plants in Xiamen City, China

Due to the well-known endocrine disrupting ability of bisphenol A (BPA), its production and usage have been regulated. Consequently, other bisphenol analogues (BPs) have been used as the replacement of BPA. Despite their widespread use, few studies have investigated the occurrence and fate of BPs in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). In this study, we conducted a city-wide monitoring survey and collected the wastewater and sludge samples from seven WWTPs in Xiamen, China over seven days. The concentrations of dissolved and adsorbed BPs in the influent and effluent, together with the BP concentrations in the sludge were determined. Five BPs, including BPA, BPAF, BPE, BPF, and BPS, were widely detected. The medium concentrations of BPA, BPAF, BPE, BPF, and BPS were 1318, 0.282, 3.70, 50.0, and 48.0 ng/L in the influent, 177, 0.714, 3.64, BLD, and BLD in the effluent, and 343, 3.09, BLD, 56.5, 1.01 μg/kg in the sludge. Spatial variations were observed, which implied the industrial origin of BPA. The efficiencies of BP removal from aqueous phase were evaluated, and results showed that BPA, BPF, and BPS were highly removed with removal efficiencies higher than 78%, while BPAF and BPE were resistant in WWTPs. Mass load calculations showed that 2075 g BPs entered into the WWTPs in Xiamen City each day, while 246 g and 63 g were discharged via effluent and excess sludge, respectively. Mass balance analysis showed that BPS and BPA were mainly biodegraded, BPF were mainly adsorbed and biodegraded, BPAF was resistant to biodegradation, while BPE was resistant to both biodegradation and adsorption.

The impact of treatment of portopulmonary hypertension on survival following liver transplantation

Pulmonary hypertension in the setting of cirrhosis and portal hypertension is known as portopulmonary hypertension (PPHTN). Moderate or severe PPHTN is uncommon, but has a poor prognosis and is considered to be a contraindication to liver transplantation. We assessed the impact of vasodilation therapy on pulmonary hemodynamics and outcome after liver transplant in these patients. Eighty-six patients evaluated for liver transplant between 1997 and 2005 had an estimated right ventricular systolic pressure >40 mm Hg or a clinical suspicion of PPHTN. Right heart catheterization confirmed PPHTN in 30 patients (ten mild, eight moderate, and 12 severe). Sixteen of the 20 with moderate-to-severe pulmonary hypertension (mPAP >or= 35) were otherwise considered suitable liver transplant candidates and were treated with vasodilation therapy. mPAP fell to less than 35 mm Hg in 12 patients (75%) and 11 of them then underwent orthotopic liver transplantation. One- and five-year survivals in the transplanted patients were 91% and 67%, respectively. Nine of 11 were off vasodilator therapy after a median of 9.2 months following transplantation. None of the patients who failed vasodilator therapy survived (median survival, 8 months). Effective pharmacologic control of PPHTN before liver transplant is associated with excellent posttransplant survival that is similar to patients transplanted for other indications.

PPCPs in Jiulong River estuary (China): Spatiotemporal distributions, fate, and their use as chemical markers of wastewater

The occurrence and fate of 50 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) were investigated in the surface water of Jiulong River estuary in the southeast of China in spring, wet season, summer, autumn and winter. Results demonstrated a wide distribution of PPCPs in Jiulong River estuary, where 34 PPCPs were detected at least once and 5 PPCPs were detected in all the samples, including caffeine, diclofenac, metoprolol, methyl paraben, and propyl paraben. Spatial and seasonal variations were observed. Special emphasis was placed on the PPCP fate in the estuary. Most PPCPs showed a non-conservative behavior in the estuary, while the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and bisphenol A showed a pseudo-conservative behavior. The non-conservative and pseudo-conservative behavior was attributed to the combination of the seawater dilution, the introduction of PPCPs via the sewage water, and the physical, chemical, or biological removal processes. Furthermore, PPCP concentrations showed drastic variations in the turbidity maximum zones. To our best knowledge, this is the first work to indicate the pseudo-conservative behavior of PPCPs in the estuary, and to show the drastic variations of PPCPs in the turbidity maximum zone. In addition, the ratio of labile to conservative PPCPs was calculated to track the source of untreated sewage contamination. Results showed a significantly higher ratio compared to the average value in WWTP effluents, indicating the ubiquitous discharge of untreated domestic wastewater in Jiulong River estuary. In addition, the high ratio of bisphenol A to conservative PPCPs implied the potential input of untreated industrial wastewater in Jiulong River estuary.

Monitoring, mass balance and fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in seven wastewater treatment plants in Xiamen City, China

The occurrence and fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) was investigated in seven wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Xiamen City, China. Special emphasis was placed on their co-occurrence and the mass balances of both dissolved and adsorbed PPCPs in influent, effluent, and sludge samples. Results showed that PPCPs were widely detected and their co-occurrence was observed both in the wastewater and sludge that can be attributed to either their similar usage or similar physicochemical properties. These results further emphasize that some specific PPCPs have the potential as indicators or surrogate compounds to reduce the number of targeted PPCPs. The occurrence and distribution of PPCPs also showed strong spatial variations, as the PPCP mass loads per inhabitant were positively correlated with the urbanization levels. Both the removal efficiencies of dissolved PPCPs from the aqueous phase and mass loss proportion of the total PPCPs were evaluated and compared. Overall, a measured total amount of 8500 g PPCPs entered the seven WWTPs daily via influent with 6640 g in the dissolved form, while 3450 g left the WWTPs. The large mass loads of antibiotics in the sludge and effluents indicated their potential adverse effects to the receiving environment.

Analyzing mosquito (Diptera: culicidae) diversity in Pakistan by DNA barcoding

BACKGROUND

Although they are important disease vectors mosquito biodiversity in Pakistan is poorly known. Recent epidemics of dengue fever have revealed the need for more detailed understanding of the diversity and distributions of mosquito species in this region. DNA barcoding improves the accuracy of mosquito inventories because morphological differences between many species are subtle, leading to misidentifications.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Sequence variation in the barcode region of the mitochondrial COI gene was used to identify mosquito species, reveal genetic diversity, and map the distribution of the dengue-vector species in Pakistan. Analysis of 1684 mosquitoes from 491 sites in Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa during 2010-2013 revealed 32 species with the assemblage dominated by Culex quinquefasciatus (61% of the collection). The genus Aedes (Stegomyia) comprised 15% of the specimens, and was represented by six taxa with the two dengue vector species, Ae. albopictus and Ae. aegypti, dominant and broadly distributed. Anopheles made up another 6% of the catch with An. subpictus dominating. Barcode sequence divergence in conspecific specimens ranged from 0-2.4%, while congeneric species showed from 2.3-17.8% divergence. A global haplotype analysis of disease-vectors showed the presence of multiple haplotypes, although a single haplotype of each dengue-vector species was dominant in most countries. Geographic distribution of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus showed the later species was dominant and found in both rural and urban environments.

CONCLUSIONS

As the first DNA-based analysis of mosquitoes in Pakistan, this study has begun the construction of a barcode reference library for the mosquitoes of this region. Levels of genetic diversity varied among species. Because of its capacity to differentiate species, even those with subtle morphological differences, DNA barcoding aids accurate tracking of vector populations.

Occurrence, spatial variation and risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in urban wastewater, canal surface water, and their sediments: A case study of Lahore, Pakistan

Due to the lack of wastewater treatment facility in Pakistan, the wastewater is directly discharged via urban drains, which might cause a high load of contaminants of emerging concerns and potential environmental risks. The present study focused on the occurrence and risk assessment of 52 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) of diversified classes in the water and sediment samples of urban drains and canal of Lahore, Pakistan. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs were the predominant PPCPs detected in the wastewater of urban drains and surface water of canal. The highest concentration was observed for acetaminophen, with median concentration of 13,880 ng/L followed by caffeine with median concentration of 6200 ng/L. Antibiotics were the predominant PPCPs in the sediment samples with highest concentration of ofloxacin (median value of 1980 μg/kg) followed by ciprofloxacin and oxytetracycline. Spatial variation showed that the population density has significant correlation with the level of many PPCPs in surface water while one of the drainage systems is affected by the direct wastewater discharge from the nearby industrial area. Ecological risk assessment in terms of risk quotient revealed that most of the PPCPs may cause high risk to the aquatic community. This high risk may lead to further contamination of food and crops, therefore enforcement of environmental legislations for treatment of wastewater is recommended.

Cloning and nucleotide sequencing of three heat shock protein genes (hsp90, hsc70, and hsp19.5) from the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) and their expression in relation to developmental stage and temperature

Heat shock protein genes, hsp90, hsc70, and hsp19.5, were cloned and sequenced from the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) by RT-PCR and RACE method. The cDNA sequence analysis of hsp90 and hsp19.5 revealed open reading frames (ORFs) of 2,151 and 522 bp in length, which encode proteins with calculated molecular weights of 82.4 and 19.5 kDa, respectively. Analysis of cDNA from hsc70 revealed an ORF of 1,878 bp coding a protein with a calculated molecular weight of 69.3 kDa. Furthermore, the analysis of genomic DNA from hsc70 confirmed the presence of introns while no introns were apparent in hsp90 and hsp19.5. Southern blot analysis suggested the presence of multiple copies of each gene family in the DBM genome. Detectable expression of hsp19.5 was observed at the pupal stage while expression of hsp90 and hsc70 was detected at both pupal and adult stages. At adult stage, females showed a higher expression of hsp90 and hsc70 than males. An increased expression was observed in all three genes after exposure to a high temperature in both sexes. These results suggest that in addition to a heat shock response, these HSP genes might be involved in other functions during the course of development in DBM.

Occurrence and ecological risk assessment of fluoroquinolone antibiotics in hospital waste of Lahore, Pakistan

In the present study, wastewater and sludge samples of two major hospitals of Lahore, Pakistan were analyzed by developing an HPLC-UV method for the possible occurrence of five frequently used fluoroquinolone antibiotics i.e. ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, sparfloxacin, moxifloxacin and gemifloxacin. The highest detected concentration was for moxifloxacin in both wastewater (224 μg/L) and sludge samples (219 μg/kg. The highest concentration of ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, sparfloxacin and gemifloxacin were found to be 66, 18, 58 and 0.2 μg/L respectively. Risk quotient (RQ) was also calculated based on maximum measured concentrations and the RQ values were very high particularly for ofloxacin and ciprofloxacin. The maximum RQ values for ofloxacin against Vibrio fisheri, Pseudomonas putida, fish, Daphnia, Green algae and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata were 3300, 66,000, 124, 46, 3300 and 6000, respectively. In case of ciprofloxacin, RQ values were found to be 1750 and 3500 against green algae and Microcystis aeruginosa, respectively.

Solid and liquid lipid-based binary solid lipid nanoparticles of diacerein: in vitro evaluation of sustained release, simultaneous loading of gold nanoparticles, and potential thermoresponsive behavior

Binary fatty acid mixture-based solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) were prepared for delivery of diacerein, a novel disease-modifying osteoarthritis drug, with and without simultaneously loaded gold nanoparticles (GNPs). In order to optimize SLNs for temperature-responsive release, lipid mixtures were prepared using different ratios of solid (stearic acid or lauric acid) and liquid (oleic acid) fatty acids. SLNs were prepared by microemulsification (53 nm), hot melt encapsulation (10.4 nm), and a solvent emulsification-evaporation technique (7.8 nm). The physicochemical characteristics of SLNs were studied by Zetasizer, Fourier transform infrared, and X-ray diffraction analysis. High encapsulation of diacerein was achieved with diacerein-loaded and simultaneously GNP-diacerein-loaded SLNs. In vitro dissolution studies revealed a sustained release pattern for diacerein over 72 hours for diacerein-loaded SLNs and 12 hours for GNP-diacerein-loaded SLNs. An increase in diacerein payload increased the release time of diacerein while GNPs decreased it. In addition, rapid release of diacerein over 4 hours was observed at 40°C (melting point of optimized fatty acid mixture), demonstrating that these binary SLNs could be used for thermoresponsive drug delivery. Kinetic modeling indicated that drug release followed zero order and Higuchi diffusion models (R¹⁰>0.9), while the Korsmeyer-Peppas model predicted a diffusion release mechanism (n<0.5).

Efficient Synthesis, SC-XRD, and Theoretical Studies of O-Benzenesulfonylated Pyrimidines: Role of Noncovalent Interaction Influence in Their Supramolecular Network

Crystalline organic compounds, 2-amino-6-methylpyrimidin-4-yl benzenesulfonate (AMPBS) and 2,6-diaminopyrimidin-4-yl benzenesulfonate (DAPBS), were prepared via O-benzenesulfonylation of 2-amino-6-methylpyrimidin-4-ol 1 and 2,6-diaminopyrimidin-4-ol 2, respectively. The structural interpretations were achieved unambiguously by single-crystal X-ray diffraction (SC-XRD) analysis. The Hirshfeld surface study showed that C-H···O, N-H···N, and especially C-H···C hydrogen bond interactions are the key contributors to the intermolecular stabilization in the crystal. Density functional theory (DFT) studies were used to obtain a better understanding of natural bond orbitals (NBOs) and nonlinear optical (NLO) analysis for AMPBS and DAPBS at the B3LYP/6-311G(d,p) level. The time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT)/CAM-B3LYP/6-311G(d,p) level was employed for frontier molecular orbital analysis of both compounds. DFT-based vibrations for C-H, C=N, N-H, and stretching for C-C were found to be in good agreement with the experimental data. Overall, the theoretical findings were acquired in correspondence to the SC-XRD-based parameters. Intracharge transfer occurred in AMPBS and DAPBS compounds, which was evaluated through FMO activity. Global reactivity indices had been acquired utilizing energies of HOMO-LUMO orbitals. Overall, the theoretical findings related to AMPBS and DAPBS consist of promising correspondence to experimental findings. The theoretical-based study also exhibited that both AMPBS and DAPBS compounds contain promising NLO features.

DNA barcoding of Bemisia tabaci complex (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) reveals southerly expansion of the dominant whitefly species on cotton in Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Although whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci complex) are an important pest of cotton in Pakistan, its taxonomic diversity is poorly understood. As DNA barcoding is an effective tool for resolving species complexes and analyzing species distributions, we used this approach to analyze genetic diversity in the B. tabaci complex and map the distribution of B. tabaci lineages in cotton growing areas of Pakistan.

METHODS/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Sequence diversity in the DNA barcode region (mtCOI-5') was examined in 593 whiteflies from Pakistan to determine the number of whitefly species and their distributions in the cotton-growing areas of Punjab and Sindh provinces. These new records were integrated with another 173 barcode sequences for B. tabaci, most from India, to better understand regional whitefly diversity. The Barcode Index Number (BIN) System assigned the 766 sequences to 15 BINs, including nine from Pakistan. Representative specimens of each Pakistan BIN were analyzed for mtCOI-3' to allow their assignment to one of the putative species in the B. tabaci complex recognized on the basis of sequence variation in this gene region. This analysis revealed the presence of Asia II 1, Middle East-Asia Minor 1, Asia 1, Asia II 5, Asia II 7, and a new lineage "Pakistan". The first two taxa were found in both Punjab and Sindh, but Asia 1 was only detected in Sindh, while Asia II 5, Asia II 7 and "Pakistan" were only present in Punjab. The haplotype networks showed that most haplotypes of Asia II 1, a species implicated in transmission of the cotton leaf curl virus, occurred in both India and Pakistan.

CONCLUSIONS

DNA barcodes successfully discriminated cryptic species in B. tabaci complex. The dominant haplotypes in the B. tabaci complex were shared by India and Pakistan. Asia II 1 was previously restricted to Punjab, but is now the dominant lineage in southern Sindh; its southward spread may have serious implications for cotton plantations in this region.

Evaluation of Sulfadiazine Degradation in Three Newly Isolated Pure Bacterial Cultures

This study is aimed to assess the biodegradation of sulfadiazine (SDZ) and characterization of heavy metal resistance in three pure bacterial cultures and also their chemotactic response towards 2-aminopyrimidine. The bacterial cultures were isolated from pig manure, activated sludge and sediment samples, by enrichment technique on SDZ (6 mg L^-1). Based on the 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, the microorganisms were identified within the genera of Paracoccus, Methylobacterium and Kribbella, which were further designated as SDZ-PM2-BSH30, SDZ-W2-SJ40 and SDZ-3S-SCL47. The three identified pure bacterial strains degraded up to 50.0, 55.2 and 60.0% of SDZ (5 mg L^-1), respectively within 290 h. On the basis of quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry and high performance liquid chromatography, 2-aminopyrimidine and 4-hydroxy-2-aminopyrimidine were identified as the main intermediates of SDZ biodegradation. These bacteria were also able to degrade the metabolite, 2-aminopyrimidine, of the SDZ. Furthermore, SDZ-PM2-BSH30, SDZ-W2-SJ40 and SDZ-3S-SCL47 also showed resistance to various heavy metals like copper, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, lead, nickel and zinc. Additionally, all three bacteria exhibited positive chemotaxis towards 2-aminopyrimidine based on the drop plate method and capillary assay. The results of this study advanced our understanding about the microbial degradation of SDZ, which would be useful towards the future SDZ removal in the environment.

DNA barcodes for bio-surveillance: regulated and economically important arthropod plant pests

Many of the arthropod species that are important pests of agriculture and forestry are impossible to discriminate morphologically throughout all of their life stages. Some cannot be differentiated at any life stage. Over the past decade, DNA barcoding has gained increasing adoption as a tool to both identify known species and to reveal cryptic taxa. Although there has not been a focused effort to develop a barcode library for them, reference sequences are now available for 77% of the 409 species of arthropods documented on major pest databases. Aside from developing the reference library needed to guide specimen identifications, past barcode studies have revealed that a significant fraction of arthropod pests are a complex of allied taxa. Because of their importance as pests and disease vectors impacting global agriculture and forestry, DNA barcode results on these arthropods have significant implications for quarantine detection, regulation, and management. The current review discusses these implications in light of the presence of cryptic species in plant pests exposed by DNA barcoding.

Synthesis and Biological Activities of Organotin(IV) Complexes as Antitumoral and Antimicrobial Agents. A Review

Advances in the use of organotin(IV) compounds have gained relevant interest in both the chemical and pharmaceutical industry. Tin(IV) form stable complexes with a unique structure and physicochemical properties that are used in organic synthesis as heat stabilizers and catalysts, in drug development as biologically active agents, and in other areas. This review focuses on recent progress in the classical and convenient synthesis procedure, on their mechanism of action, and biological activities as antitumoral and antimicrobial agents.