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Rumen bacterial community responses to DPA, EPA and DHA in cattle and sheep: A comparative in vitro study. Sci Rep 2019; 9:11857. [PMID: 31413283 PMCID: PMC6694141 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-48294-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of marine lipids as modulators of ruminal biohydrogenation of dietary unsaturated fatty acids may be explained by the effects of their n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) on the bacterial community. However, the impact of individual PUFA has barely been examined, and it is uncertain which bacteria are truly involved in biohydrogenation. In addition, despite interspecies differences in rumen bacterial composition, we are not aware of any direct comparison of bovine and ovine responses to dietary PUFA. Therefore, rumen fluid from cannulated cattle and sheep were used as inocula to examine in vitro the effect of 20:5n-3 (EPA), 22:5n-3 (DPA), and 22:6n-3 (DHA) on the bacterial community. Amplicon 16 S rRNA sequencing suggested that EPA and DHA had a greater contribution to the action of marine lipids than DPA both in cattle and sheep. Certain effects were exclusive to each ruminant species, which underlines the complexity of rumen microbial responses to dietary fatty acids. Based on changes in bacterial abundance, Barnesiella, Prevotella, Paraprevotella, Hallela, Anaerovorax, Succiniclasticum, Ruminococcus and Ruminobacter may be involved in the ruminal response in biohydrogenation to the addition of marine lipids, but further research is necessary to confirm their actual role in ruminal lipid metabolism.
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In vitro analysis of the effect of supplementation with activated charcoal on the equine hindgut. J Equine Sci 2016; 27:49-55. [PMID: 27330398 PMCID: PMC4914397 DOI: 10.1294/jes.27.49] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study uses in vitro analytical techniques to investigate the effect of activated charcoal on the
microbial community of the equine hindgut and the metabolites they produce. Incubations were performed in
Wheaton bottles using a 50 ml incubation of a high-energy feed or a low-energy feed, plus bottles with no
added food source, together with five levels of activated charcoal (0, 10, 25, 50 or 100 mg per bottle) and
fecal samples as a bacterial inoculum. Using this method the rate of gas production, volatile fatty acid and
ammonia concentrations, and pH values were analyzed and found to vary depending on the addition of feed, but
the activated charcoal had no effect (P>0.05) on any of these. It is already believed that the effect of
activated charcoal as a control for toxic substances is at its highest in the foregut or midgut of animals,
and therefore should have little impact on the hindgut. The data presented here suggest that if any of the
activated charcoal does reach the hindgut, then it has no significant impact on the microbial community
present, nor on the major metabolites produced, and so should not have a detrimental effect on the principal
site of fermentation in the horse.
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Canine hip dysplasia in Tibetan terriers. Vet Rec 2015; 176:387. [PMID: 25820325 DOI: 10.1136/vr.102886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Measurement of enteric methane from ruminants using a hand-held laser methane detector. ACTA AGR SCAND A-AN 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/09064702.2013.797487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Effect of a blend of essential oil compounds on the colonization of starch-rich substrates by bacteria in the rumen. J Appl Microbiol 2008; 103:2132-41. [PMID: 18045396 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03455.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To investigate the mode of action of a blend of essential oil compounds on the colonization of starch-rich substrates by rumen bacteria. METHODS AND RESULTS Starch-rich substrates were incubated, in nylon bags, in the rumen of sheep organized in a 4 x 4 latin square design and receiving a 60:40 silage : concentrate diet. The concentrate was either high or low in crude protein, and the diet was supplemented or not with a commercial blend of essential oil compounds (110 mg per day). The total genomic DNA was extracted from the residues in the bags. The total eubacterial DNA was quantified by real-time PCR and the proportion of Ruminobacter amylophilus, Streptococcus bovis and Prevotella bryantii was determined. Neither the supplementation with essential oil compounds nor the amount of crude protein affected the colonization of the substrates by the bacteria quantified. However, colonization was significantly affected by the substrate colonized. CONCLUSIONS The effect of essential oils on the colonization of starch-rich substrates is not mediated through the selective inhibition of R. amylophilus. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY This study enhances our understanding of the colonization of starch-rich substrates, as well as of the mode of action of the essential oils as rumen manipulating agents.
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Abstract
AIMS To study the effect of the type of antibiotic used in medicated diets against pathogens and the feeding level on the microbial biodiversity in the rabbit caecum. METHODS AND RESULTS Three groups of eight does were given a diet unsupplemented (NAB) or with 100 ppm of bacitracin (BAC) or tiamulin (TIA). Litter sizes of four does in each group were adjusted to five (LS5) or to nine (LS9), to manipulate their levels of feed intake. The feeding level strongly affected caecal microbiota in does fed on NAB and BAC diet, whereas the effect of the antibiotic was higher in TIA-supplemented animals, even prevailing over the effect of feeding level. Daily food intake and milk yield (P<0.05) and caecum weight (P<0.10) were higher in feeding of LS9 does. The total volatile fatty acid concentration was lower with BAC (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS The feeding level strongly affects caecal biodiversity in lactating does. The extent of the antibiotic effect depends on its nature, being significant with TIA but not with BAC. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Changes in the feeding level promote different profiles of caecal microbiota. Therapeutic doses of TIA may affect caecal microbiota, whereas BAC would not reduce diversity.
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The effect of lactating rabbit does on the development of the caecal microbial community in the pups they nurture. J Appl Microbiol 2007; 103:557-64. [PMID: 17714388 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03277.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To study the effect of microbial community of the rabbit does as influenced by dietary factors, on the development of the gut microbiota of their litters. METHODS AND RESULTS Twenty-four lactating does were given a diet unsupplemented (NAB) or with 100 ppm of bacitracin (BAC) or tiamulin (TIA) to modify their digestive microbiota. Litters were adjusted to six pups. In Trial 1, four does per diet milked their own six pups. In Trial 2, two does per diet nursed three of their pups and three fostered from the doe given the same diet. In Trial 3, two does on each diet nursed three of their pups and three fostered from another doe fed on another diet. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) analyses of the litter microbiota showed that the effect of the milking mother was greater than the influence of the biological mother. TIA had a strong effect on the bacterial profile even prevailing over that of the milking mother, in contrast to BAC. CONCLUSIONS Nursing mother microbiota plays an important role over that of the litter. Caecal colonization that occurs during the lactation process prevailed over that during the partum. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Manipulation of the mother's microbiota may help for adaptation of the litter microbial community against pathologic digestive processes.
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Abstract
AIMS This work was carried out to determine if there was a difference in the microbial population of the rumen associated with daylength at which sheep are housed. METHODS AND RESULTS Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) was used to study the ciliate and bacterial diversity in the rumen of Soay rams kept in long day (16 h light) or short day (8 h light) photoperiods. Bacterial diversity varied according to the daylength conditions where the host animal was housed, as did total volatile fatty acids (VFA) concentrations. No differences associated with daylength were detected in ciliate diversity, branched VFA concentrations or the ruminal ammonia concentrations. CONCLUSIONS As diets had identical composition, yet voluntary intakes levels were higher during long days, it is proposed that the differences in bacterial populations arise because of the differences in amount of food consumed. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The outcome of this study demonstrated that factors beyond dietary composition must be taken into account when trying to study microbial populations, even in what can be considered a fairly constant environment.
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A re-appraisal of the diversity of the methanogens associated with the rumen ciliates. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2005; 238:307-13. [PMID: 15358415 DOI: 10.1016/j.femsle.2004.07.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2004] [Revised: 07/13/2004] [Accepted: 07/20/2004] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The diversity of methanogenic archaea associated with different species of ciliated protozoa in the rumen was analysed. Partial fragments of archaeal SSU rRNA genes were amplified from DNA isolated from single cells from the rumen protozoal species Metadinium medium, Entodinium furca, Ophryoscolex caudatus and Diplodinium dentatum. Sequence analysis of these fragments indicated that although all of the new isolates clustered with sequences previously described for methanogens, there was a difference in the relative distribution of sequences detected here as compared to that of previous work. In addition, many of the novel sequences, although clearly of archaeal origin have relatively low identity to the sequences in database which are most closely related to them.
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Codon utilization, DNA landscaping and fractal analysis in bacteriophage phi(adh). Acta Virol 2005; 49:169-76. [PMID: 16178514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The bacteriophage phi(adh) has a low G+C content and encodes its protein products using a restricted number of the codons, which it could theoretically use. Investigated were (i) the restricted codon usage by determining codon indices and codon distances for various genes and ORFs, (ii) distribution of purines and pyrimidines on the two strands of the double-stranded genome and within all genes and ORFs, and (iii) nucleotide positional bias within the genome. The genes and ORFs can be clustered into four groups, based on codon distance analysis. The genome landscape showed that the plus strand was more purine-rich than the negative one and that the only area of the genome where the landscape was located in the pyrimidine-rich region was at the start of the sequence which was also the only region of the genome where ORFs were found on the negative strand. The nucleotide composition of the genome, examined by fractal analysis showed little, if any, DNA positional bias, as opposed to overall compositional bias with a self-similarity profile. The ORFs showed a bias in favour of purines on the coding strand.
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Abstract
AIMS This work was carried out to develop a rapid molecular profiling technique to screen ciliate populations in the rumen of sheep. METHODS AND RESULTS DGGE was used to study the ciliate diversity in the rumen of sheep. There was considerable variation between sheep which were co-housed, and fed the same diet. However, no difference in the major banding patterns was detected, when samples were collected from a single sheep sampled at different points. Following dietary changes, use of a pair-wise comparison of lanes, demonstrated that although there was still diversity between the ciliate population of sheep, the effects as a result of dietary changes were greater. CONCLUSIONS The technique generated molecular profiles which are sufficiently different to allow comparison between samples, and to permit molecular ecological studies on the rumen ciliate population. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The outcome of this study means that ciliate diversity in the rumen may now be studied by those unfamiliar with morphological identification of these organisms.
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Eubacterium pyruvativorans sp. nov., a novel non-saccharolytic anaerobe from the rumen that ferments pyruvate and amino acids, forms caproate and utilizes acetate and propionate. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2003; 53:965-970. [PMID: 12892112 DOI: 10.1099/ijs.0.02110-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Two similar gram-positive rods were isolated from 10(-6) dilutions of ruminal fluid from a sheep receiving a mixed grass hay/concentrate diet, using a medium containing pancreatic casein hydrolysate as sole source of carbon and energy. The isolates did not ferment sugars, but grew on pyruvate or trypticase, forming caproate as the main fermentation product and valerate to a lesser extent. Acetate and propionate were utilized. One of these strains, I-6T, was selected for further study. Strain I-6T was a non-motile coccal rod, 1.2 x 0.4 microm, with a gram-positive cell wall ultrastructure and a G + C content of 56.8 mol%. No spores were visible, and strain I-6T did not survive heating at 80 degrees C for 10 min. Its rate of NH3 production was 375 nmol (mg protein)(-1) min(-1), placing it in the 'ammonia-hyperproducing' (or HAP) group of ruminal bacteria. 16S rDNA sequence analysis (1296 bases) indicated that it represents a novel species within the 'low-G + C' gram-positive group, for which the name Eubacterium pyruvativorans sp. nov. is proposed. Among cultivated bacteria, strain I-6T was most closely related (89% identity) to other asaccharolytic Eubacterium isolates from the mouth and the rumen. It was 98% identical to uncultured bacterial sequences amplified by others from ruminal digesta.
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Ammonia production by ruminal microorganisms and enumeration, isolation, and characterization of bacteria capable of growth on peptides and amino acids from the sheep rumen. Appl Environ Microbiol 2002; 68:4925-31. [PMID: 12324340 PMCID: PMC126416 DOI: 10.1128/aem.68.10.4925-4931.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Excessive NH(3) production in the rumen is a major nutritional inefficiency in ruminant animals. Experiments were undertaken to compare the rates of NH(3) production from different substrates in ruminal fluid in vitro and to assess the role of asaccharolytic bacteria in NH(3) production. Ruminal fluid was taken from four rumen-fistulated sheep receiving a mixed hay-concentrate diet. The calculated rate of NH(3) production from Trypticase varied from 1.8 to 19.7 nmol mg of protein(-1) min(-1) depending on the substrate, its concentration, and the method used. Monensin (5 micro M) inhibited NH(3) production from proteins, peptides, and amino acids by an average of 28% with substrate at 2 mg/ml, compared to 48% with substrate at 20 mg/ml (P = 0.011). Of the total bacterial population, 1.4% grew on Trypticase alone, of which 93% was eliminated by 5 micro M monensin. Many fewer bacteria (0.002% of the total) grew on amino acids alone. Nineteen isolates capable of growth on Trypticase were obtained from four sheep. 16S ribosomal DNA and traditional identification methods indicated the bacteria fell into six groups. All were sensitive to monensin, and all except one group (group III, similar to Atopobium minutum), produced NH(3) at >250 nmol min(-1) mg of protein(-1), depending on the medium, as determined by a batch culture method. All isolates had exopeptidase activity, but only group III had an apparent dipeptidyl peptidase I activity. Groups I, II, and IV were most closely related to asaccharolytic ruminal and oral Clostridium and Eubacterium spp. Group V comprised one isolate, similar to Desulfomonas piger (formerly Desulfovibrio pigra). Group VI was 95% similar to Acidaminococcus fermentans. Growth of the Atopobium- and Desulfomonas-like isolates was enhanced by sugars, while growth of groups I, II, and V was significantly depressed by sugars. This study therefore demonstrates that different methodologies and different substrate concentrations provide an explanation for different apparent rates of ruminal NH(3) production reported in different studies and identifies a diverse range of hyper-ammonia-producing bacteria in the rumen of sheep.
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Abstract
The 3' untranslated regions of a number of cDNAs from the rumen protozoal species Entodinium caudatum were studied with a view to characterising their preference for stop codons, general length, nucleotide composition and polyadenylation signals. Unlike a number of ciliates, Entodinium caudatum uses UAA as a stop codon, rather than as a codon for glutamine. In addition, the 3' untranslated region of the message is generally less than 100 nucleotides in length, extremely A+T rich, and does not appear to utilise any of the conventional polyadenylation signals described in other organisms.
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Abstract
The phylogenetic position of eleven 14-3-3 proteins from five protozoal species was tested relative to other eukaryotic 14-3-3 versions representing many of the previously described isoforms. The protozoal proteins, four from Entodinium caudatum, three from Entameoba histolytica and four from apicomplexan parasites formed clusters closer to the plant and animal epsilon isoforms than to the animal beta, gamma/eta, sigma/theta, and zeta isoforms. This extends the preliminary findings of Wang and Shakes (1996) but data from a wider range of genera are still required to strengthen our hypothesis that the protozoan isoforms may constitute novel isoforms of the 14-3-3 family.
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Overlapping sequences with high homology to functional proteins coexist on complementary strands of DNA in the rumen bacterium Prevotella albensis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1999; 263:58-62. [PMID: 10486253 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.1999.1316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The potential for two complementary fragments of DNA from a clone from the ruminal bacterium Prevotella albensis to encode sequences with homology to at least part of functional proteins is described. One strand contains a sequence with high homology to dnaK, a member of the hsp70 family, and the other strand contains a sequence with some homology to glutamate dehydrogenase genes. Overlapping of these two genes on opposite strands has been reported in eukaryotic species, and is now reported for the first time in a bacterial species. Further investigation of previously described dnaK genes demonstrates that it is more widespread than might be anticipated, with all thirty other dnaK genes investigated also retaining long sequences encoding at least part of a sequence with high homology to a glutamate dehydrogenase gene.
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Phylogenetic position and codon usage of two centrin genes from the rumen ciliate protozoan, Entodinium caudatum. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1998; 166:147-54. [PMID: 9741093 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1998.tb13196.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
A lambda phage cDNA expression library was constructed from washed suspensions of the rumen ciliate protozoan, Entodinium caudatum, which had been maintained in an isolated, monofaunated sheep. The library was screened using an anti-E. caudatum antiserum raised in rabbits against sonically disrupted protozoa, DNA sequences for two centrins or caltractins, a subfamily of the EF-hand Ca(2+)-modulated proteins which are closely related, highly conserved cytoskeletal proteins, were identified and characterised. Their phylogenetic position was established relative to other centrin gene sequences. The two proteins showed homology to Paramecium tetraurelia centrins: 50 and 52% identities and 71 and 75% similarities in the protein sequence, over 99 and 110 amino acids fragments. Codon usage and indices revealed the E. caudatum follows universal codon usage, but with a restricted number of codons, and has a low G&C content.
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Nitrogen-fixing aerobic bacteria have higher genomic GC content than non-fixing species within the same genus. Hereditas 1998; 128:173-8. [PMID: 9687237 DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-5223.1998.00173.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The genomic GC contents of both nitrogen-fixing and non-fixing members of eight genera of bacteria are investigated. Analysis by t-tests showed that in the two aerobic general investigated (Aquaspirillum and Vibrio) there is a significantly higher GC content in the nitrogen-fixing members of the genus than in those unable to fix nitrogen, whilst in aerobic genera there is either no GC bias, or in the case of two genera (Rhodospirillum and Clostridium) there is a significantly higher GC content in the non-fixing organisms. This suggests that, in many genera, directional mutational pressures are different in nitrogen-fixing and non-fixing organisms. These results are discussed in the light of known mechanisms of mutation pressure and their relation to environmental variables.
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Abstract
Copyright 1998 Academic Press Limited
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Adaptation of standard spreadsheet software for the analysis of DNA sequences. Biotechniques 1998; 24:131-6, 138. [PMID: 9454965 DOI: 10.2144/98241st07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper presents use of spreadsheet software to derive various statistics on nucleotide and codon distribution and frequency from gene sequence data, including chi 2 test and their derivatives, and proportion of nucleotides in the third position. The basic principles can be easily extended to other more complex functions. In addition, it can be used to translate a nucleic acid sequence into a protein sequence or to produce a codon usage table. This adaptation permits sequence analysis without expensive dedicated software and easy modification of the analysis according to the user's requirements. It is also ideal for introducing biological science students to the programming potential of spreadsheets.
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Small regions of preferential codon usage and their effect on overall codon bias--the case of the plp gene. BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY INTERNATIONAL 1997; 43:107-14. [PMID: 9315288 DOI: 10.1080/15216549700203871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Preferential codon usage within synonymous groups (codon bias), is hypothesised to be a consequence of either mutational pressure or translational selection. This paper examines PLP and DM-20, two transcripts differentially spliced from the plp gene, using a variety of previously described indices measuring codon bias as well as a novel index for quantifying the response to directional mutation pressure. The results demonstrate that small regions of extreme codon bias may have appreciable effects on the quantification of total bias, and that this effect may be either an increase or a decrease depending which index is used.
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Abstract
In situ hybridization is performed on oligodendrocytes using oligo- nucleotide probes to determine the subcellular distribution of myelin basic protein (MBP) encoding messages which are associated with the cytoskeleton, relative to sub-cellular distribution of all MBP-encoding messages in the cells.
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Abstract
Oligonucleotides provide a means to differentiate between closely related mRNAs. Here in situ hybridization is performed using oligonucleotide probes to determine the subcellular distribution of two differential splicing products of a single gene. It is demonstrated here that the subcellular distributions of PLP and DM-20 messages in oligodendrocytes are quite different, despite being transcripts of a single gene.
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2'3'-CNPase and actin distribution in oligodendrocytes, relative to their mRNAs. BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY INTERNATIONAL 1996; 40:975-9. [PMID: 8955887 DOI: 10.1080/15216549600201603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
By using oligodendrocyte cells, which have a very highly defined cell morphology, it is demonstrated that, in general, proteins are found slightly more distal, relative to the cell body, than their mRNA counterparts, but that there is a general trend for proteins and the messages which encode them to be found in similar regions within the cell. This has been demonstrated by use of in situ hybridization and immunocytochemistry together on single cells.
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Buffer modification allows labeling of oligonucleotides at both the 5' and 3' termini. Biotechniques 1995; 18:969-70. [PMID: 7546718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
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