A Multilevel Multidimensional Finite Mixture Item Response Model to Cluster Respondents and Countries

Abstract. The aim of this study was to test the multilevel multidimensional finite mixture item response model of the Forms of Self-Criticising/Attacking and Self-Reassuring Scale (FSCRS) to cluster respondents and countries from 13 samples ( N = 7,714) and from 12 countries. The practical goal was to learn how many discrete classes there are on the level of individuals (i.e., how many cut-offs are to be used) and countries (i.e., the magnitude of similarities and dissimilarities among them). We employed the multilevel multidimensional finite mixture approach which is based on an extended class of multidimensional latent class Item Response Theory (IRT) models. Individuals and countries are partitioned into discrete latent classes with different levels of self-criticism and self-reassurance, taking into account at the same time the multidimensional structure of the construct. This approach was applied to the analysis of the relationships between observed characteristics and latent trait at different levels (individuals and countries), and across different dimensions using the three-dimensional measure of the FSCRS. Results showed that respondents’ scores were dependent on unobserved (latent class) individual and country membership, the multidimensional structure of the instrument, and justified the use of a multilevel multidimensional finite mixture item response model in the comparative psychological assessment of individuals and countries. Latent class analysis of the FSCRS showed that individual participants and countries could be divided into discrete classes. Along with the previous findings that the FSCRS is psychometrically robust we can recommend using the FSCRS for measuring self-criticism.

The Factor Structure of the Forms of Self-Criticising/Attacking & Self-Reassuring Scale in Thirteen Distinct Populations

There is considerable evidence that self-criticism plays a major role in the vulnerability to and recovery from psychopathology. Methods to measure this process, and its change over time, are therefore important for research in psychopathology and well-being. This study examined the factor structure of a widely used measure, the Forms of Self-Criticising/Attacking & Self-Reassuring Scale in thirteen nonclinical samples (N = 7510) from twelve different countries: Australia (N = 319), Canada (N = 383), Switzerland (N = 230), Israel (N = 476), Italy (N = 389), Japan (N = 264), the Netherlands (N = 360), Portugal (N = 764), Slovakia (N = 1326), Taiwan (N = 417), the United Kingdom 1 (N = 1570), the United Kingdom 2 (N = 883), and USA (N = 331). This study used more advanced analyses than prior reports: a bifactor item-response theory model, a two-tier item-response theory model, and a non-parametric item-response theory (Mokken) scale analysis. Although the original three-factor solution for the FSCRS (distinguishing between Inadequate-Self, Hated-Self, and Reassured-Self) had an acceptable fit, two-tier models, with two general factors (Self-criticism and Self-reassurance) demonstrated the best fit across all samples. This study provides preliminary evidence suggesting that this two-factor structure can be used in a range of nonclinical contexts across countries and cultures. Inadequate-Self and Hated-Self might not by distinct factors in nonclinical samples. Future work may benefit from distinguishing between self-correction versus shame-based self-criticism.

The social mentality theory of self-compassion and self-reassurance: The interactive effect of care-seeking and caregiving

The aim of this study was to test social mentality theory, which views self-compassion/reassurance as a form of intrapersonal relating in which the interpersonal mentalities of care-seeking and caregiving are activated. Self-report measures of motivations, cognitions, and behaviors related to seeking and receiving care from others were administered to 195 students. Self-compassion/reassurance was predicted by the interaction of care-seeking and caregiving, with the positive effect of care-seeking intensified at high caregiving. As hypothesized, the combination of high care-seeking and high caregiving predicted the highest level of self-compassion/reassurance. The lowest level of self-compassion/reassurance was predicted by the combination of low care-seeking and high caregiving consistent with the concept of compulsive caregiving. Findings suggest that fostering a kinder way of relating to oneself may be achieved through more effective care-seeking and caregiving with others.

The development of self-definition and relatedness in emerging adulthood and their role in the development of depressive symptoms

According to Blatt (2004; Blatt & Luyten, 2009) and others (e.g., Beck, Epstein, Harrison, & Emery, 1983), establishing positive self-definition and mature relatedness to others represent core lifespan developmental tasks. In a sample of emerging adults, this study examined the effects of the quality of one close friendship and changes in romantic relationship status on the development of maladaptive personality traits from each domain (self-criticism and neediness and connectedness), and the effects of changes in these personality factors on the development of depressive symptoms. Participants consisted of 82 (13 male) emerging adults ( Mage = 19.00, SD = 0.75) and a single corresponding close friend. At baseline, participants and their friends completed measures of the quality of their relationship (i.e., acceptance and autonomy support). At baseline and again 12 months later, participants completed measures of self-criticism, neediness, connectedness, depressive symptoms, and current romantic relationship status. Adjusting for gender and baseline age, structural equation models showed that better friendship quality predicted decreases in self-criticism, which in turn predicted lower levels of depressive symptoms. Entering into a romantic relationship predicted increases in connectedness. Connectedness was unrelated to depression, although increases in neediness over time predicted increases in depressive symptoms. Results highlight the role of one close friend and changes in romantic relationship status in the development of self-definition and relatedness during emerging adulthood, and the role of those personality factors in the development of depression.

Linguistic and metalinguistic outcomes of intense immersion education: How bilingual?

Anglophone children in Grades 2 and 5 who attended an intensive French immersion program were examined for linguistic and metalinguistic ability in English and French. Measures of linguistic proficiency (vocabulary and grammatical knowledge) were consistently higher in English and remained so even after five years of immersion education in French. Measures of metalinguistic ability (letter fluency and ignoring semantic anomalies in sentence judgments) in French improved significantly over the two grades studied and closed the gap (letter fluency) or caught up with (sentence judgments) similar performance in English. This dissociation between developmental trajectories for linguistic and metalinguistic development is exactly the pattern expected for fully bilingual children, endorsing immersion education as a route to bilingualism.