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von Benda-Beckmann AM, Isojunno S, Zandvliet M, Ainslie MA, Wensveen PJ, Tyack PL, Kvadsheim PH, Lam FPA, Miller PJO. Modeling potential masking of echolocating sperm whales exposed to continuous 1-2 kHz naval sonar. J Acoust Soc Am 2021; 149:2908. [PMID: 33940877 DOI: 10.1121/10.0004769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Modern active sonar systems can (almost) continuously transmit and receive sound, which can lead to more masking of important sounds for marine mammals than conventional pulsed sonar systems transmitting at a much lower duty cycle. This study investigated the potential of 1-2 kHz active sonar to mask echolocation-based foraging of sperm whales by modeling their echolocation detection process. Continuous masking for an echolocating sperm whale facing a sonar was predicted for sonar sound pressure levels of 160 dB re 1 μPa2, with intermittent masking at levels of 120 dB re 1 μPa2, but model predictions strongly depended on the animal orientation, harmonic content of the sonar, click source level, and target strength of the prey. The masking model predicted lower masking potential of buzz clicks compared to regular clicks, even though the energy source level is much lower. For buzz clicks, the lower source level is compensated for by the reduced two-way propagation loss to nearby prey during buzzes. These results help to predict what types of behavioral changes could indicate masking in the wild. Several key knowledge gaps related to masking potential of sonar in echolocating odontocetes were identified that require further investigation to assess the significance of masking.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M von Benda-Beckmann
- Acoustics and Sonar, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), P.O. Box 96864, The Hague 2509 JG, The Netherlands
| | - S Isojunno
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, United Kingdom
| | - M Zandvliet
- Acoustics and Sonar, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), P.O. Box 96864, The Hague 2509 JG, The Netherlands
| | - M A Ainslie
- JASCO Applied Sciences (Deutschland) GmbH, Eschborn, Germany
| | - P J Wensveen
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Iceland, Askja, Sturlugata 7, 102 Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - P L Tyack
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, United Kingdom
| | - P H Kvadsheim
- Sensor and Surveillance Systems, Norwegian Defense Research Establishment (FFI), NO-3191 Horten, Norway
| | - F P A Lam
- Acoustics and Sonar, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), P.O. Box 96864, The Hague 2509 JG, The Netherlands
| | - P J O Miller
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, United Kingdom
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von Benda-Beckmann AM, Wensveen PJ, Prior M, Ainslie MA, Hansen RR, Isojunno S, Lam FPA, Kvadsheim PH, Miller PJO. Predicting acoustic dose associated with marine mammal behavioural responses to sound as detected with fixed acoustic recorders and satellite tags. J Acoust Soc Am 2019; 145:1401. [PMID: 31067938 DOI: 10.1121/1.5093543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
To understand the consequences of underwater noise exposure for cetaceans, there is a need for assessments of behavioural responses over increased spatial and temporal scales. Bottom-moored acoustic recorders and satellite tags provide such long-term and large spatial coverage of behaviour compared to short-duration acoustic-recording tags. However, these tools result in a decreased resolution of data from which an animal response can be inferred, and no direct recording of the sound received at the animal. This study discusses the consequence of the decreased resolution of data from satellite tags and fixed acoustic recorders on the acoustic dose estimated by propagation modelling and presents a method for estimating the range of sound levels that animals observed with these methods have received. This problem is illustrated using experimental results obtained during controlled exposures of northern bottlenose whales (Hyperoodon ampullatus) exposed to naval sonar, carried out near Jan Mayen, Norway. It is shown that variability and uncertainties in the sound field, resulting from limited sampling of the acoustic environment, as well as decreased resolution in animal locations, can lead to quantifiable uncertainties in the estimated acoustic dose associated with the behavioural response (in this case avoidance and cessation of foraging).
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Affiliation(s)
- A M von Benda-Beckmann
- Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - P J Wensveen
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, School of Biology, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - M Prior
- Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - M A Ainslie
- Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - R R Hansen
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - S Isojunno
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, School of Biology, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - F P A Lam
- Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - P H Kvadsheim
- Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (FFI), Defence Systems, Horten, Norway
| | - P J O Miller
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, School of Biology, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
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Curé C, Isojunno S, Visser F, Wensveen PJ, Sivle LD, Kvadsheim PH, Lam FPA, Miller PJO. Biological significance of sperm whale responses to sonar: comparison with anti-predator responses. ENDANGER SPECIES RES 2016. [DOI: 10.3354/esr00748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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Miller PJO, Kvadsheim PH, Lam FPA, Tyack PL, Curé C, DeRuiter SL, Kleivane L, Sivle LD, van IJsselmuide SP, Visser F, Wensveen PJ, von Benda-Beckmann AM, Martín López LM, Narazaki T, Hooker SK. First indications that northern bottlenose whales are sensitive to behavioural disturbance from anthropogenic noise. R Soc Open Sci 2015; 2:140484. [PMID: 26543576 PMCID: PMC4632540 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.140484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2015] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Although northern bottlenose whales were the most heavily hunted beaked whale, we have little information about this species in its remote habitat of the North Atlantic Ocean. Underwater anthropogenic noise and disruption of their natural habitat may be major threats, given the sensitivity of other beaked whales to such noise disturbance. We attached dataloggers to 13 northern bottlenose whales and compared their natural sounds and movements to those of one individual exposed to escalating levels of 1-2 kHz upsweep naval sonar signals. At a received sound pressure level (SPL) of 98 dB re 1 μPa, the whale turned to approach the sound source, but at a received SPL of 107 dB re 1 μPa, the whale began moving in an unusually straight course and then made a near 180° turn away from the source, and performed the longest and deepest dive (94 min, 2339 m) recorded for this species. Animal movement parameters differed significantly from baseline for more than 7 h until the tag fell off 33-36 km away. No clicks were emitted during the response period, indicating cessation of normal echolocation-based foraging. A sharp decline in both acoustic and visual detections of conspecifics after exposure suggests other whales in the area responded similarly. Though more data are needed, our results indicate high sensitivity of this species to acoustic disturbance, with consequent risk from marine industrialization and naval activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- P. J. O. Miller
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
- Author for correspondence: P. J. O. Miller e-mail:
| | - P. H. Kvadsheim
- Maritime Systems Division, Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (FFI), Horten 3191, Norway
| | - F. P. A. Lam
- Acoustics and Sonar, Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), PO Box 96864, 2509 JG The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - P. L. Tyack
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
| | - C. Curé
- Acoustic Group, Centre for Expertise and Engineering on Risks, Urban and Country Planning, Environment and Mobility (CEREMA - DTer Est), F 67035 Strasbourg cedex2, France
| | - S. L. DeRuiter
- Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9LZ, UK
| | - L. Kleivane
- Maritime Systems Division, Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (FFI), Horten 3191, Norway
| | - L. D. Sivle
- Institute of Marine Research (IMR), PO Box 1870 Nordnes, Bergen 5817, Norway
| | - S. P. van IJsselmuide
- Acoustics and Sonar, Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), PO Box 96864, 2509 JG The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - F. Visser
- Kelp Marine Research, Loniusstraat 9, 1624 CJ Hoorn, The Netherlands
- Behavioural Biology Group, Leiden University, PO Box 9505, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - P. J. Wensveen
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
| | - A. M. von Benda-Beckmann
- Acoustics and Sonar, Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), PO Box 96864, 2509 JG The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - L. M. Martín López
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
| | - T. Narazaki
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
| | - S. K. Hooker
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
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Antunes R, Kvadsheim PH, Lam FPA, Tyack PL, Thomas L, Wensveen PJ, Miller PJO. High thresholds for avoidance of sonar by free-ranging long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas). Mar Pollut Bull 2014; 83:165-80. [PMID: 24820645 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.03.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2013] [Revised: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/29/2014] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The potential effects of exposing marine mammals to military sonar is a current concern. Dose-response relationships are useful for predicting potential environmental impacts of specific operations. To reveal behavioral response thresholds of exposure to sonar, we conducted 18 exposure/control approaches to 6 long-finned pilot whales. Source level and proximity of sonar transmitting one of two frequency bands (1-2 kHz and 6-7 kHz) were increased during exposure sessions. The 2-dimensional movement tracks were analyzed using a changepoint method to identify the avoidance response thresholds which were used to estimate dose-response relationships. No support for an effect of sonar frequency or previous exposures on the probability of response was found. Estimated response thresholds at which 50% of population show avoidance (SPLmax=170 dB re 1 μPa, SELcum=173 dB re 1 μPa(2) s) were higher than previously found for other cetaceans. The US Navy currently uses a generic dose-response relationship to predict the responses of cetaceans to naval active sonar, which has been found to underestimate behavioural impacts on killer whales and beaked whales. The navy curve appears to match more closely our results with long-finned pilot whales, though it might underestimate the probability of avoidance for pilot-whales at long distances from sonar sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Antunes
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Scotland KY16 8LB, UK.
| | - P H Kvadsheim
- Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, Maritime Systems, N-3191 Horten, Norway
| | - F P A Lam
- Acoustics & Sonar Research Group, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), Oude Waalsdorperweg 63, 2597 AK The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - P L Tyack
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Scotland KY16 8LB, UK; Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI), Woods Hole, MA 94305, USA
| | - L Thomas
- CREEM Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Scotland KY16 9LZ, UK
| | - P J Wensveen
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Scotland KY16 8LB, UK
| | - P J O Miller
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Scotland KY16 8LB, UK
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