pVHL co-ordinately regulates CXCR4/CXCL12 and MMP2/MMP9 expression in human clear-cell renal cell carcinoma

Loss of pVHL function, characteristic for clear-cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC), causes increased expression of CXCR4 chemokine receptor, which triggers expression of metastasis-associated MMP2/MMP9 in different human cancers. The impact of pVHL on MMP2/MMP9 expression and their relationship to CXCR4 and its ligand CXCL12 in ccRCC is unclear. By using reverse transcription PCR, immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry, strong mRNA and protein expression of CXCR4, CXCL12, MMP2, MMP9 and MMP inhibitors TIMP1 and TIMP2 was found in VHL-null 786-O ccRCC cells. Loss of CXCR4/CXCL12 expression after restoration of VHL function in these cells was accompanied by a significant reduction of MMP2 and MMP9 expression, whereas neither TIMP1 nor TIMP2 expression was affected. Using real-time PCR analysis, higher MMP2 (p = 0.0134) and MMP9 (p = 0.067) mRNA expression levels were detected in primary ccRCC with strong CXCR4 compared to cases with weak CXCR4 expression. There was no association between CXCR4 and TIMP1 or TIMP2 mRNA expression. MMP2 protein expression data obtained by immunohistochemistry on a tissue microarray uncovered positive cytoplasmic staining in 290/380 (76%) primary ccRCCs. Co-expression of CXCR4 and MMP2 was found in 282 of these tumours (74%). Our in vitro and in vivo data strongly indicate that pVHL coordinately regulates expression of metastasis-associated genes CXCR4/CXCL12 and MMP2/MMP9 but the exact molecular mechanism of this regulation remains to be determined. Co-expression of CXCR4 and CXCL12, as demonstrated in VHL-null 786-O cells, might enable ccRCC progression and metastatic dissemination by autocrine receptor stimulation, even in the absence of exogenous CXCL12.

[mRNA expression analysis of metastatic markers in clear-cell renal cell carcinoma]

Deregulated expression of Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs) and Tissue Inhibitors of Metalloproteinases (TIMPs) is an important pre-requisite for metastatic processes in a variety of human tumor types including renal cell cancer. Own previous cDNA microarray studies demonstrated differential expression of several MMPs and TIMPs in normal renal tissue and renal cancer cell lines. In order to analyze MMP/TIMP expression in primary clear-cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) tissues we have determined the mRNA abundance of MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 by RT-PCR in 29 ccRCC and 7 normal renal tissues. Compared to normal renal tissue, expression of MMP-2 and TIMP-2 was significantly reduced in 16 and 12 of 29 ccRCCs, respectively. In contrast, MMP-9 expression was significantly increased in 11 of 29 ccRCCs. No difference was seen for TIMP-1 transcription levels. Because expression of the metastasis-associated CXCR4 chemokine receptor is increased and associated with poor tumour-specific survival in ccRCC we also compared MMP/TIMP and CXCR4 expression in the given tissue samples. Expression of TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 did not correlate with CXCR4 expression levels, whereas mRNA expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 was significantly higher in tumours with strong CXCR4 expression (p = 0.04 and p = 0.01, respectively). These preliminary results suggest the involvement of CXCR4, MMP-2, and MMP-9 in renal cancer progression.

Repression of p15INK4b expression by Myc through association with Miz-1

Deregulated expression of c-myc can induce cell proliferation in established cell lines and in primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), through a combination of both transcriptional activation and repression by Myc. Here we show that a Myc-associated transcription factor, Miz-1, arrests cells in G1 phase and inhibits cyclin D-associated kinase activity. Miz-1 upregulates expression of the cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK) inhibitor p15INK4b by binding to the initiator element of the p15INK4b promoter. Myc and Max form a complex with Miz-1 at the p15 initiator and inhibit transcriptional activation by Miz-1. Expression of Myc in primary cells inhibits the accumulation of p15INK4b that is associated with cellular senescence; conversely, deletion of c-myc in an established cell line activates p15INK4b expression. Alleles of c-myc that are unable to bind to Miz-1 fail to inhibit accumulation of p15INK4b messenger RNA in primary cells and are, as a consequence, deficient in immortalization.

TGFbeta influences Myc, Miz-1 and Smad to control the CDK inhibitor p15INK4b

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGFbeta) is a cytokine that arrests epithelial cell division by switching off the proto-oncogene c-myc and rapidly switching on cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors such as p15INK4b. Gene responses to TGFbeta involve Smad transcription factors that are directly activated by the TGFbeta receptor. Why downregulation of c-myc expression by TGFbeta is required for rapid activation of p15INK4b has remained unknown. Here we provide evidence that TGFbeta signalling prevents recruitment of Myc to the p15INK4b transcriptional initiator by Myc-interacting zinc-finger protein 1 (Miz-1). This relieves repression and enables transcriptional activation by a TGFbeta-induced Smad protein complex that recognizes an upstream p15INK4b promoter region and contacts Miz-1. Thus, two separate TGFbeta-dependent inputs - Smad-mediated transactivation and relief of repression by Myc - keep tight control over p15INK4b activation.

Bin1 functionally interacts with Myc and inhibits cell proliferation via multiple mechanisms

The tumor suppressor Bin1 was identified through its interaction with the N-terminal region of Myc which harbors its transcriptional activation domain. Here we show that Bin1 and Myc physically and functionally associate in cells and that Bin1 inhibits cell proliferation through both Myc-dependent and Myc-independent mechanisms. Bin1 specifically inhibited transactivation by Myc as assayed from artificial promoters or from the Myc target genes ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) and alpha prothymosin (pT). Inhibition of ODC but not pT required the presence of the Myc binding domain (MBD) of Bin1 suggesting two mechanisms of action. Consistent with this possibility, a non-MBD region of Bin1 was sufficient to recruit a repression function to DNA that was unrelated to histone deacetylase. Regions outside the MBD required for growth inhibition were mapped in Ras cotransformation or HepG2 hepatoma cell growth assays. Bin1 required the N-terminal BAR domain to suppress focus formation by Myc whereas the C-terminal U1 and SH3 domains were required to inhibit adenovirus E1A or mutant p53, respectively. All three domains contributed to Bin1 suppression of tumor cell growth but BAR-C was most crucial. These findings supported functional interaction between Myc and Bin1 in cells and indicated that Bin1 could inhibit malignant cell growth through multiple mechanisms.

Control of cell proliferation by Myc

Myc proteins are key regulators of mammalian cell proliferation. They are transcription factors that activate genes as part of a heterodimeric complex with the protein Max. This review summarizes recent progress in understanding how Myc stimulates cell proliferation and how this might contribute to cellular transformation and tumorigenesis.

An alternative pathway for gene regulation by Myc

The c-Myc protein activates transcription as part of a heteromeric complex with Max. However, Myc-transformed cells are characterized by loss of expression of several genes, suggesting that Myc may also repress gene expression. Two-hybrid cloning identifies a novel POZ domain Zn finger protein (Miz-1; Myc-interacting Zn finger protein-1) that specifically interacts with Myc, but not with Max or USF. Miz-1 binds to start sites of the adenovirus major late and cyclin D1 promoters and activates transcription from both promoters. Miz-1 has a potent growth arrest function. Binding of Myc to Miz-1 requires the helix-loop-helix domain of Myc and a short amphipathic helix located in the carboxy-terminus of Miz-1. Expression of Myc inhibits transactivation, overcomes Miz-1-induced growth arrest and renders Miz-1 insoluble in vivo. These processes depend on Myc and Miz-1 association and on the integrity of the POZ domain of Miz-1, suggesting that Myc binding activates a latent inhibitory function of this domain. Fusion of a nuclear localization signal induces efficient nuclear transport of Miz-1 and impairs the ability of Myc to overcome transcriptional activation and growth arrest by Miz-1. Our data suggest a model for how gene repression by Myc may occur in vivo.

Mutual requirement of CDK4 and Myc in malignant transformation: evidence for cyclin D1/CDK4 and p16INK4A as upstream regulators of Myc

We demonstrate in this paper that CDK4 which is a G1 phase specific cell cycle regulator and catalytic subunit of D-type cyclins has oncogenic activity similar to D-type cyclins themselves and is able to provoke focus formation when cotransfected with activated Ha-ras into primary rat embryo fibroblasts. Surprisingly, using two different mutants we show that CDK4's ability to bind to p16INK4a and not its kinase activity is important for its transforming potential. In addition, p16INK4a but not a mutant form that is found in human tumours can completely abrogate focus formation by CDK4 suggesting that CDK4 can malignantly transform cells by sequestering p16INK4a or other CKIs. We demonstrate that both cyclin D1 and CDK4 functionally depend on active Myc to exert their potential as oncogenes and vice versa that the transforming ability of Myc requires functional cyclin D/CDK complexes. Moreover, we find that p16INK4a and the Rb related protein p107 which releases Myc after phosphorylation by cyclin D1/CDK4 efficiently block Myc's activity as a transcriptional transactivator and as an oncogene. We conclude that both p16INK4a and cyclin D/CDK4 complexes are upstream regulators of Myc and directly govern Myc function in transcriptional transactivation and transformation via the pocket protein p107.