Mapping the Silent Threat: A Comprehensive Analysis of Chagas Disease Occurrence in Riverside Communities in the Western Amazon

Chagas disease (CD) is a typical tropical illness caused by Trypanosoma cruzi. The objective of this study was to assess the prevalence of Chagas disease in communities in two states of the Brazilian Amazon. Data collection occurred in July in the Alto Juruá region of Acre and in December in the communities of Humaitá, Amazonas, in 2019. A total of 477 participants were included in the study. In the communities of Alto Juruá, triatomine collections and analyses of T. cruzi infection were also carried out. All confirmed cases were found in the state of Acre, resulting in a total prevalence of 1.67. Of these eight cases, seven underwent ECG, all of which were concluded as normal by the physician team's cardiologists. Seventeen triatomine bugs, all belonging to the Rhodnius genus, were captured. The natural infection rate by T. cruzi was 25% in the Nova Cintra community and 66.67% in the Boca do Moa community (Alto Juruá). This research found that more than 1% of the studied population exhibited positive serological results for Chagas disease in the riverine communities during the study period, representing a small portion of cases among those who have not yet been diagnosed.

Parasitism by Amblyomma rotundatum on Teiidae lizards in the eastern part of the state of Acre, Brazil

The aim of the present study was to report on the occurrence of parasitism by Amblyomma rotundatum ticks on two species of Teiidae lizards and test the presence of rickettsiae in the collected ticks, in the western Brazilian Amazon region. Ticks were collected in July 2019, from a fragment of terra firme forest in the municipality of Senador Guiomard, Acre, Brazil. Two lizards that were infested by immature stages of ticks were caught using mist net and Tomahawk traps. Ectoparasites were collected manually, and the lizard specimens were identified and released at the same location where they had been caught. Three nymphs and 49 larvae were collected from Ameiva ameiva, while 25 nymphs and nine larvae were collected from Tupinambis cuzcoensis, which are both in the family Teiidae. The ticks were identified morphologically as belonging to the genus Amblyomma. Nymphs were identified at species level through molecular analysis, resulting in the tick species Amblyomma rotundatum. This is the first record of parasitism by the tick A. rotundatum on T. cuzcoensis lizard, and the first report of an association between A. rotundatum and the lizard species A. ameiva and T. cuzcoensis in Acre, in the western part of the Amazon region.

Morbidity survey of the history of snakebites in different communities in the alto Juruá, western Brazilian Amazon

The Alto Juruá region has a rich diversity of venomous snakes, and snakebites represent an important cause of morbidity. The present study was carried out in five communities in the Alto Juruá region, and aimed to evaluate the history of snakebites in terms of which snakes were involved and what was the victims' conduct in relation to first aid and prevention. Between 2017 and 2019, semi-structured interviews were applied to 260 residents, 56 (21.53%) of whom had a history of snakebites. The profile of the victims is 73.2% male, a resident of rural areas who develops activities mainly in agriculture and extractivism and who has a low level of education. Just over half of the snakebites occurred during the rainy season (52.8%) and the majority during the day (77%). Bothrops bites were the most frequently reported (90.3%) and B. atrox was the most mentioned snake (jararaca and surucucu) for being responsible for snakebites (80.8%). Approximately 87.5% of the bites occurred to the lower limbs, and 48.2% of the victims were barefoot at the time of the bite. Inadequate first-aid procedures were reported, such as using tourniquets and consuming the drink known as "Específico Pessoa", not drinking water, and treatment with traditional therapy (phytotherapics, zootherapeutics and faith healers), as well as not seeking hospital care. Thus, the need to facilitate access to hospital units in these communities and health education (prevention and first aid) are essential in order to minimize this situation.

Occurrence of triatomines in public spaces: An atypical case in the Southwestern Brazilian Amazon

BACKGROUND

Triatomines infest atypical public spaces in the Western Amazon.

METHODS

Frequent visitors to these spaces captured the insects in the state of Acre, Brazil (Rio Branco and Cruzeiro do Sul).

RESULTS

Six insects were found in a penitentiary, a church, a school, a university, a hospital, and a health center. Five of the insects were adults (three positive for Trypanosoma cruzi) and one was a nymph.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first report of triatomine occurrence in schools or churches. These data are important for implementing surveillance strategies and alerting individuals about possible changes in Chagas disease transmission dynamics.

Composition and natural history of snakes from Zona da Mata in Rondonia, southwestern brazilian Amazon

This study presents an account on the snake assemblage and its natural history in the state of Rondônia. Data collection was carried out between January and December 2018. The surveys were done through time constrained searches, pitfall traps, and occasional encounters. A total of 155 snakes corresponding to 60 species were recorded, of which 12 species were registered for the first time in the Zona da Mata region, including new records for the state of Rondônia (Lygophis meridionalis and Atractus pantostictus). The most abundant species was the Common Lancehead (Bothrops atrox). Active snakes were most frequently observed on the ground (63.22%). Lizards were the nost frequent prey consumed by snakes (45% of species). Snake richness can still be considered underestimated, highlighting the need of new studies.

When to think about a Lachesis muta envenomation in the Western Brazilian Amazon: Lessons from a case report

In the Brazilian Amazon, envenomations by lancehead pit vipers prevail across the region, while bushmaster (Lachesis muta) envenomations are rarely confirmed. Here, we described a moderate snakebite, diagnosed as a lancehead pit viper envenomation upon admission and treated with four vials of Bothrops antivenom. Blood remained unclottable for 4 days of hospitalization. On day 4, after admission, the patient presented pictures of the perpetrating snake to the hospital staff, which was identified as a Lachesis muta specimen. After administering 10 vials of Lachesis antivenom, blood became clottable 12 hours after treatment. The patient was discharged without complaints.

First report of male–male combat in free-ranging Amazonian Common Lanceheads (Bothrops atrox)

In many snakes, males engage in agonistic interactions (male–male combat) apparently to establish dominant–subordinate relationships to gain priority access to reproductive females. In the Neotropical genus Bothrops Wagler, 1824 (∼45 species), male–male combat has been recorded only in three species of the monophyletic Bothrops atrox group. However, most male combats recorded in this clade occurred in captivity, an environment that facilitates the emergence of agonistic interactions. Here, we provide the first record of male–male combat in free-ranging Amazonian Common Lanceheads (Bothrops atrox (Linnaeus, 1758)) and discuss the implications of this observation for the species mating system. During fieldwork, we found one immature female and five active adult males, two of them fighting. These observations suggest that reproductive male B. atrox actively search and compete for widely dispersed and scarce receptive females.

Temporal trend and epidemiological profile of accidents involving venomous animals in Brazil, 2007-2019

OBJECTIVE

to analyze the temporal trend of accidents involving venomous animals in Brazil from 2007 to 2019.

METHODS

this was a cross-sectional study carried out with data from the Notifiable Health Conditions Information System (SINAN). Prais-Winsten linear regression was used for the temporal analysis. We calculated incidence rates according to sex and age group, relative risk and case fatality ratio.

RESULTS

during the study period there were 2,102,657 cases of accidents involving venomous animals. With the exception of snakebite, the remaining accidents showed a rising temporal trend in most regions of the country. Scorpion stings, snake bites and spider bites were responsible for 86% of accidents, mainly affecting male people of working age. Accidents involving snakes (0.4%) and bees (0.3%) had the highest case fatality ratios. Children were the main victims of accidents involving bees, caterpillars and "others".

CONCLUSION

accidents involving venomous animals showed a rising temporal trend for most conditions, as well as different epidemiological profiles.

Bothrops bilineatus: An Arboreal Pitviper in the Amazon and Atlantic Forest

The two-striped forest-pitviper (Bothrops bilineatus) is an arboreal snake that is currently represented by two subspecies (B. b. bilineatus and B. b. smaragdinus) that comprise a species complex, and its distribution is in the Amazon and the Atlantic Forest. The rarity of encounters with this snake is reflected in the low occurrence of cases of snakebites throughout its geographic distribution and the resulting low number of published clinical reports. However, in some areas, B. bilineatus proves to be more frequent and causes envenomations in a greater proportion. Herein, we review the main aspects of the species complex B. bilineatus, including its biology, ecology, taxonomy, morphology, genetic and molecular studies, geographic distribution, conservation status, venom, pathophysiology and clinical aspects, and epidemiology. In addition, the different antivenoms available for the treatment of envenomations caused by B. bilineatus are presented along with suggestions for future studies that are needed for a better understanding of the snakebites caused by this snake.

Snakebites in "Invisible Populations": A cross-sectional survey in riverine populations in the remote western Brazilian Amazon

In the Brazilian Amazon, long distances, low healthcare coverage, common use of ineffective or deleterious self-care practices, and resistance to seeking medical assistance have an impact on access to antivenom treatment. This study aimed to estimate snakebite underreporting, and analyze barriers that prevent victims from obtaining healthcare in communities located in 15 municipalities on the banks of the Solimões, Juruá and Purus Rivers, in the remote Western Brazilian Amazon. Information on the participants' demographics, previous snakebites, access to healthcare, time taken to reach medical assistance, use of self-care practices, and the reason for not accessing healthcare were collected through semi-structured interviews. In the case of deaths, information was collected by interviewing parents, relatives or acquaintances. A total of 172 participants who reported having suffered snakebites during their lifetime were interviewed. A total of 73 different treatment procedures was reported by 65.1% of the participants. Participants living in different river basins share few self-care procedures that use traditional medicine, and 91 (52.9%) participants reported that they had access to healthcare. Living in communities along the Juruá River [OR = 12.6 (95% CI = 3.2-49.7; p<0.001)] and the use of traditional medicine [OR = 11.6 (95% CI = 3.4-39.8; p<0.001)] were variables that were independently associated to the lack of access to healthcare. The main reasons for not accessing healthcare were the pprioritization of traditional treatments (70.4%), and the failure to recognize the situation as being potentially severe (50.6%). Four deaths from complications arising from the snakebite were reported, and three of these were from communities on the banks of the Juruá River. Only one of these received medical assistance. We found an unexpectedly high underreporting of snakebite cases and associated deaths. Snakebite victims utilized three main different healing systems: 1) self-care using miscellaneous techniques; 2) official medical healthcare generally combined with traditional practices; and 3) self-care using traditional practices combined with Western medicines. To mitigate snakebite burden in the Brazilian Amazon, an innovative intervention that would optimize timely delivery of care, including antivenom distribution among existing community healthcare centers, is needed.

Crotalus Durissus Ruruima: Current Knowledge on Natural History, Medical Importance, and Clinical Toxinology

Crotalus durissus ruruima is a rattlesnake subspecies mainly found in Roraima, the northernmost state of Brazil. Envenomings caused by this subspecies lead to severe clinical manifestations (e.g. respiratory muscle paralysis, rhabdomyolysis, and acute renal failure) that can lead to the victim’s death. In this review, we comprehensively describe C. d. ruruima biology and the challenges this subspecies poses for human health, including morphology, distribution, epidemiology, venom cocktail, clinical envenoming, and the current and future specific treatment of envenomings by this snake. Moreover, this review presents maps of the distribution of the snake subspecies and evidence that this species is responsible for some of the most severe envenomings in the country and causes the highest lethality rates. Finally, we also discuss the efficacy of the Brazilian horse-derived antivenoms to treat C. d. ruruima envenomings in Roraima state.

Efficacy of the 20-minute whole blood clotting test (WBCT20) in the diagnosis of coagulation alteration related to snakebites in a Western Brazilian Amazon hospital

Introduction:

The efficacy of 20-minute whole blood clotting (WBCT20) and the Lee-White clotting time (LWCT) tests in diagnosing coagulation alterations from snakebites were compared.

Methods:

We evaluated 89 snakebite cases treated at the Hospital Regional do Juruá em Cruzeiro do Sul, Acre, Brazil.

Results:

WBCT20 results were normal in 33.7% and unclottable in 66.3% of cases, while LWCT results were normal in 23.6% and altered (prolonged or unclottable) in 76.4% of cases, with no significant differences.

Conclusions:

The WBCT20 is important for rapidly diagnosing coagulation alterations from snakebites. Furthermore, it is efficient, inexpensive, and can be deployed in isolated hospitals.

Triatominae (Hemiptera, Reduviidae) in homes: Report of their occurrence in the municipality of Cruzeiro do Sul, Acre, South Western Amazon

INTRODUCTION

Triatomines are hematophagous insects that are important to public health since they are the vectors of American Trypanosomiasis. The objective of this study was to describe the occurrence of triatomines in homes in Cruzeiro do Sul, Acre, Brazil.

METHODS

The specimens were collected by an active search inside homes and also by a passive search by the residents.

RESULTS

A total of 55 triatomines were captured comprising of 5 species each of the genera Rhodnius, Eratyrus, and Panstrongylus. No colonies were detected, ruling out the possibility of domiciliation.

CONCLUSIONS

Information on regional epidemiological dynamics contributes to the prevention and control of disease.

Trypanosoma cruzi vectors in a periurban area of the Western Brazilian Amazon

The etiological agent of American trypanosomiasis is the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, typically transmitted by triatomines. The aim of this study was to investigate the triatomine fauna and trypanosomiasis infections in Acre State , Western Brazilian Amazon. Insect collection was performed by dissecting palm trees and installing traps. We found that T. cruzi infection rate was 24.5% and Rhodnius pictipes (57.1%) was the most abundant triatomine species. Health education as well as epidemiological and entomological surveillance are necessary to diagnose and prevent new cases of Chagas disease in the region.

Envenomations by coral snakes in an Amazonian metropolis: Ecological, epidemiological and clinical aspects

Envenomation by coral snakes represents a little known burden in Brazilian Amazonia. So far, details on clinical and epidemiological aspects remain obscure in the region. We gathered data from medical charts and from the scientific collection of snakes from Fundação de Medicina Tropical Doutor Heitor Vieira Dourado, finding 26 cases of envenomation by five species of Micrurus in Manaus region, between 1987 and 2018. They represent 0.7% of the snakebites treated in the hospital since the records began, in 1979. Micrurus lemniscatus was responsible for most of the bites (10), followed by M. hemprichii (five), M. spixii (three), M. surinamensis (three) and M. averyi (one). There was no difference between the sexes of the snakes that caused bites. Patients were mostly males, and most of the cases were reported in urban areas. Bites predominated in dry season, and there was a clear geographical segregation among species. We describe seven cases of envenomation, three mild and four severe, all of which evolved to cure. Paresthesia (six), pain (five) and edema (four) were the most common local symptoms. Systemic features such as dyspnea/shallow breath (four), palpebral ptosis (four), blurred vision (three), dysarthria (three) and difficulty to walk (three) were also detected. Two patients bitten by Micrurus sp. and M. hemprichii, showed slight increased serum levels of creatine kinase (reference level <190 U/L), 1184 U/L and 1229 U/L, respectively, indicative of mild systemic myotoxicity. This is the first report of myotoxic manifestation in the envenomation by M. hemprichii. No patient developed respiratory failure, though one bitten by an adult M. spixii required intubation and mechanical ventilation due to decreased level of consciousness during evolution, probably related to induced sedation caused by concurrent alcohol intoxication. All patients were treated with Brazilian Micrurus antivenom (soro antielapídico, median = 10 vials). Six patients were pretreated intravenously with H1 and H2 antagonists and steroids, with two patients developing early adverse reactions. The median length of hospital stay was four days. Envenomations by coral snakes in Manaus region are clinically severe, but rare and sparsely distributed over time, making the detection of epidemiological and clinical patterns a challenge for public health.

Snakebites in Rio Branco and surrounding region, Acre, Western Brazilian Amazon

INTRODUCTION

Snakebites are considered a neglected tropical disease in many countries in Latin America, including Brazil. As few studies have assessed snakebites in the Amazon region and especially in the state of Acre, epidemiological studies are of great importance. The present study aimed to describe the epidemiological characteristics of snakebites in the Rio Branco region, observing their characteristics in rural and urban areas and their correlation with rainfall and river outflow.

METHODS

This retrospective, descriptive study analyzed epidemiological information obtained from snakebite notifications registered on the Information System for Notifiable Diseases that occurred from March, 2018 to February, 2019. The cases of snakebite were correlated with rainfall and flow.

RESULTS

A total of 165 cases of snakebite were registered in the period. Most cases were caused by Bothrops and affected mainly individuals of the male sex who were between 21 and 30 years old. Most of the snakebites occurred in Rio Branco (71.52%; 29 cases per 100,000 inhabitants). Of these, 60.2% occurred in the urban area and 39.8% in the rural area and the majority occurred during the rainy season.

CONCLUSIONS

Although studies have shown that a majority of cases occur in rural areas, in this study, urbanization of snakebites was observed. The Bothrops genus was responsible for the highest number of snakebites and, during the rainy season, bites occurred more frequently. Educational prevention campaigns, population advice, and first aid in case of snakebites for the population are thus suggested.

Venomous snakes and people in a floodplain forest in the Western Brazilian Amazon: Potential risks for snakebites

People who live in rural or forested areas are more likely to be affected by snakebites, due to their presence in the natural habitat of snakes and due to activities such as extractivism and agriculture. To conduct an ethnobiological study regarding the knowledge related to venomous snakes, snakebites and the attitudes of people who frequent areas of floodplain forests in the Alto Juruá (Brazilian Amazon), and correlate this information with data on snakebites in the region and the ecology of the ophiofauna, 100 residents, who are actively involved in extractivism, fishing, or hunting in the forests of the region were interviewed. Boards with photographs of venomous snakes from the region were used to ask questions about their experiences. The sampling of snakes was carried on trails in a forest used by residents of the region in their extractivism activities. Four venomous species (Bothrops atrox, B. bilineatus smaragdinus, Micrurus lemniscatus and M. surinamensis) were recorded. Among the interviewees, 31% claimed that they had already suffered at least one snakebite. The B. atrox snake is the species that the inhabitants encounter most and the one that is most associated with snakebites. Bothrops b. smaragdinus was the most common snake found during the search. Regarding accident prevention, 60% of them reported wearing boots when walking in the forest. In relation to practices adopted after a bite, the majority stated that they would seek medical attention; however, many reported using first aid measures that would not be medically effective for the victim's recovery. Despite B. b. smaragdinus being the most common snake found by researchers, it is responsible for very few snakebites. This is probably due to its arboreal habits, since it is found at a higher than average height (6.3 m) which is much higher than the height of a human being. The surveyed population demonstrated knowledge of the main preventive measures against snakebites, although some inadequate and/or ineffective first aid measures are still adopted.

Relationship between snake size and clinical, epidemiological and laboratory aspects of Bothrops atrox snakebites in the Western Brazilian Amazon

In the Brazilian Amazon, snakebites are a significant problem, especially for populations in rural areas, particularly in forests, where victims are a considerable distance from hospital care. Several factors are associated with the severity of the accident, such as the size and age of the snake. This study aims to compare the clinical, epidemiological and laboratory aspects of envenomation to the size of Bothrops atrox snakes. Clinical, epidemiological and laboratory variables were collected from patients bitten by B. atrox and who were admitted to a hospital in the city of Cruzeiro do Sul (western Brazilian Amazon). When the two punctures of the teeth were present in the bite sign, the distance between these was measured. When taken to the hospital, the snake was measured; otherwise, its size was estimated via interviews with patients. In 92 cases, the size of the snake was estimated, and most of these were caused by small snakes. Bites of small snakes occur mainly on the feet, while larger specimens reach the legs or higher regions. Small snakes were associated primarily with mild and moderate snakebites, with more presence of hemorrhagic manifestations, while larger snakes were responsible for severe cases and characterized by local effects (necrosis, edema, flictena, compartment syndrome, and infection) and patients were treated with a higher amount of antivenom and for a longer period of hospitalization. The distance of the punctures was related to the size of the snake and the severity of the local envenomation. The observation of the distance between puncture marks when present, which is correlated with the length of the specimen, as well as the estimation of the snake size by the patient, may provide more support for the health professional on the prognosis of envenomation. The use of boots in activities in rural areas and forests could contribute to a lower rate of cases of snakebites, and health education on preventive measures and first aid for populations is fundamental.

Bothrops atrox, the most important snake involved in human envenomings in the amazon: How venomics contributes to the knowledge of snake biology and clinical toxinology

Bothrops atrox snakes are mostly endemic of the Amazon rainforest and is certainly the South American pit viper responsible for most of the snakebites in the region. The composition of B. atrox venom is significantly known and has been used to trace the relevance of the venom phenotype for snake biology and for the impacts in the clinics of human patients involved in accidents by B. atrox. However, in spite of the wide distribution and the great medical relevance of B. atrox snakes, B. atrox taxonomy is not fully resolved and the impacts of the lack of taxonomic resolution on the studies focused on venom or envenoming are currently unknown. B. atrox venom presents different degrees of compositional variability and is generally coagulotoxic, inducing systemic hematological disturbances and local tissue damage in snakebite patients. Antivenoms are the effective therapy for attenuating the clinical signs. This review brings a comprehensive discussion of the literature concerning B. atrox snakes encompassing from snake taxonomy, diet and venom composition, towards clinical aspects of snakebite patients and efficacy of the antivenoms. This discussion is highly supported by the contributions that venomics and antivenomics added for the advancement of knowledge of B. atrox snakes, their venoms and the treatment of accidents they evoke.

Injuries caused by fish to fishermen in the Vale do Alto Juruá, Western Brazilian Amazon

INTRODUCTION:

This study aimed to document injuries caused by fish among professional fishermen in the Western Brazilian Amazon.

METHODS:

We undertook a descriptive, retrospective study, involving 51 professional fishermen, to determine clinical, epidemiological, and therapeutic aspects of their injuries.

RESULTS:

Among 51 fishermen interviewed, most injuries were due to mandi (Pimelodus spp.), and the hands were the most injured region, resulting in pain and bleeding in all cases.

CONCLUSIONS:

Our study findings confirm the morbidity of fish-related injuries, and reaffirm the need for relevant information regarding prevention and injury management.

The deadliest snake according to ethnobiological perception of the population of the Alto Juruá region, western Brazilian Amazonia

INTRODUCTION

We examined the ethnobiological perception of the population of the Alto Juruá region about different snake species, in terms of their dangerousness and manifestations of envenomation.

METHODS

We interviewed 100 villagers who were active in the forests.

RESULTS

Lachesis muta was considered the most venomous snake, and Bothrops atrox appeared to be the most feared snake species.

CONCLUSIONS

The high incidence, severity, and mortality of B. atrox bites and the severity and mortality of L. muta bites were the factors that contributed to these species being perceived as the most feared and venomous snakes.

Ethno-knowledge and attitudes regarding snakebites in the Alto Juruá region, Western Brazilian Amazonia

BACKGROUND

The Alto Juruá region, located in the extreme western part of the Brazilian Amazonia, possesses an indigenous and riverine population which is involved in agricultural and forest extraction activities, and is a region that stands out for its high incidence of snakebites.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the attitudes of the victims, the characteristics of the snakes and the circumstances of the snakebites which occurred in a region where human populations are highly exposed to snakes.

METHODS

The study was conducted at the Regional Hospital of Juruá in the Municipality of Cruzeiro do Sul (Acre), which regularly attends victims of snakebites in the Alto Juruá region. The snakes that caused the envenomations were identified from clinical and epidemiological diagnosis of the symptoms and signs that patients presented during hospital, and by enzyme immunoassay for venom detection using serum samples of the patients, or by identification of the snake responsible for the envenomation when it was taken to the hospital or photographed. People who suffered or witnessed the snakebite were interviewed to assess the circumstances of the bite, the attitude adopted after the accident and whether they recognized the species of snake that caused the envenomation.

RESULTS

There were 133 cases of snakebite (76.24/100.000 inhabitants), mainly involving male individuals living in the rural area and who had a low level of education. The most affected groups were farmers (48%) and children and teenagers (39%). It was observed that 8.3% of them presented a history of recurrence for bites. The lower limbs were the most affected anatomical region (84%). The Bothrops atrox snake, mainly small specimens (mostly juveniles), was the main species involved in the envenomations (83.4%). Snakebites occurred mainly in forest areas, backyards of houses in rural areas and near to aquatic environments, during activities (walking, farming, extractivism, hunting). Most of the time, the snake was on the ground and the bite occurred because of the approximation of the individual, either by trampling or by approximation of a hand. Half of the victims performed some kind of inadequate first aid (not drinking water, use of tourniquet, incision at the site of the bite, use of black stone, drinking a compound "Específico Pessoa").

CONCLUSIONS

Snakebite is an important cause of morbidity in the Alto Juruá region. Bothrops bites are mostly caused by small-sized specimens, probably due to the greater abundance of B. atrox juveniles, and also because small snakes are more difficult for people to see. People are more often bitten on the lower limbs probably due to the size of B. atrox (small and medium) and because the snakes are usually on the ground in most situations. Many victims resort to ineffective actions that can cause complications and also delay serotherapy. A low level of education is a factor that may contribute to worse outcomes in snakebites since it is associated with a lack of knowledge of preventive and first aid measures.

"Bad things come in small packages": predicting venom-induced coagulopathy in Bothrops atrox bites using snake ontogenetic parameters

Introduction: Snake venom composition shows significant inter- and intra-species variation. In the case of the viperid species Bothrops atrox, responsible for the majority of snakebites in the Amazon region, geographical and ontogenetic variables affect venom composition, with ecological and medical implications. Previous studies had shown that venom from neonate and juvenile Bothrops specimens have a higher in vitro coagulant activity. The aim of this investigation was to assess the association of clinical outcomes, such as venom-induced coagulopathy and local complications, with B. atrox ontogenetic variables.Methods: This study explored the relationship between some clinical parameters in patients suffering envenomations by B. atrox in the Amazon and several morphometric parameters of the snake specimens causing the bites.Results: There were 248 specimens confirmed as agents of envenomation, mostly female snakes (70.5%) and classified as juveniles (62.7%). Patients bitten by neonates compared to adult snakes [OR = 2.70 (95%CI 1.15-6.37); p = .021] and by snakes with white tail tip [OR = 1.98 (95%CI 1.15-3.41); p = .013] were more likely to develop coagulopathy. Time from patient admission to the unclottable blood reversion was not affected by the snake gender (p = .214) or age (p = .254). Patients bitten by neonate (p = .024) or juvenile snakes (p < .0001) presented a lower frequency of moderate to severe edema, as compared to those bitten by adult snakes. In agreement with experimental observations, patients bitten by neonates and by snakes with a white tail tip were more likely to develop coagulopathy than those bitten by adult snakes. In contrast, envenomations by adult snakes were associated with a higher incidence of severe local edema.Conclusion: Despite these variations, no difference was observed in the time needed to recover blood clotting in these patients after Bothrops antivenom administration.

Non-venomous snakebites in the Western Brazilian Amazon

INTRODUCTION

In this study, we examined the clinical manifestations, laboratory evidence, and the circumstances of snakebites caused by non-venomous snakes, which were treated at the Regional Hospital of Juruá in Cruzeiro do Sul.

METHODS

Data were collected through patient interviews, identification of the species that were taken to the hospital, and the clinical manifestations.

RESULTS

Eight confirmed and four probable cases of non-venomous snakebites were recorded.

CONCLUSIONS

The symptoms produced by the snakes Helicops angulatus and Philodryas viridissima, combined with their coloration can be confused with venomous snakes (Bothrops atrox and Bothrops bilineatus), thus resulting in incorrect bothropic snakebite diagnosis.

Extractivism of palm tree fruits: A risky activity because of snakebites in the state of Acre, Western Brazilian Amazon

INTRODUCTION

We present here the risk from snakebites because of palm extractivism in western Amazonia.

METHODS

The data were extracted from a cross-sectional sample study, from January 2016 to April 2018, at the Juruá Regional Hospital of Cruzeiro do Sul (Acre).

RESULTS

There were 14 Bothrops incidents involving males, most of them occurring during the harvesting of "açaí" (Euterpe precatoria).

CONCLUSIONS

During the harvesting of "açaí," there is the risk of the presence of B. atrox on the ground near the palm tree, and of B. bilineatus at the top of the palm tree.

Stepping into a dangerous quagmire: Macroecological determinants of Bothrops envenomings, Brazilian Amazon

Despite significant and successful efforts in Brazil regarding snakebites in the areas of research, antivenom manufacture and quality control, training of health professionals in the diagnosis and clinical management of bites, little is known about determinants of snakebites incidence in order to further plan interventions to reduce the impact of this medical condition. Understanding the complexity of ecological interactions in a geographical region is important for prediction, prevention and control measures of snakebites. This investigation aims to describe spatial distribution and identify environmental determinants of human envenoming by lancehead pit vipers (Bothrops genus), in the Brazilian Amazon. Aggregated data by the municipality was used to analyze the spatial distribution of Bothrops bites cases and its relationship with geographic and environmental factors. Eight geo-environmental factors were included in the analysis as independent variables: (1) tree canopy loss increase; (2) area with vegetation cover; (3) area covered by water bodies; (4) altitude; (5) precipitation; (6) air relative humidity; (7) soil moisture; and (8) air temperature. Human envenoming by lancehead pit vipers (Bothrops genus) in the Amazon region is more incident in lowlands [Adjusted regression coefficient [ARC] -0.0007 (IC95%: -0.001; -0.0006), p<0.0001], with high preserved original vegetation cover [ARC 0.0065 (IC95%: 0.0071; 0.0060), p<0.0001], with heaviest rainfall [ARC 0.0001 (IC95%: 0.00009; 0.0001), p<0.0001] and higher air relative humidity [ARC 0.0082 (IC95%: 0.0108; 0.0056), p<0.0001]. This association is interpreted as the result of the higher prey availability and further abundance of pit vipers in such landscapes.

Chromosome evolution in dendropsophini (Amphibia, Anura, Hylinae)

Dendropsophini is the most species-rich tribe within Hylidae with 234 described species. Although cytogenetic information is sparse, chromosome numbers and morphology have been considered as an important character system for systematic inferences in this group. Using a diversity of standard and molecular techniques, we describe the previously unknown karyotypes of the genera Xenohyla, Scarthyla and Sphaenorhynchus and provide new information on Dendropsophus and Lysapsus. Our results reveal significant karyotype diversity among Dendropsophini, with diploid chromosome numbers ranging from 2n = 22 in S. goinorum, 2n = 24 in Lysapsus, Scinax, Xenohyla, and almost all species of Sphaenorhynchus and Pseudis, 2n = 26 in S. carneus, 2n = 28 in P. cardosoi, to 2n = 30 in all known Dendropsophus species. Although nucleolar organizer regions (NORs) and C-banding patterns show a high degree of variability, NOR positions in 2n = 22, 24 and 28 karyotypes and C-banding patterns in Lysapsus and Pseudis are informative cytological markers. Interstitial telomeric sequences reveal a diploid number reduction from 24 to 22 in Scarthyla by a chromosome fusion event. The diploid number of X. truncata corroborates the character state of 2n = 30 as a synapomorphy of Dendropsophus.

Erythrolamprus oligolepis (Boulenger, 1905) (Serpentes: Dipsadidae): first record for the state of Acre, Brazil

We present the first record of Erythrolamprus oligolepis for the state of Acre, Brazil, which extends the species distribution by approximately 560 kilometers from Jaci-Paraná in the state of Rondônia, Brazil. 

New record of the humming frog Chiasmocleis supercilialbus Morales and McDiarmid, 2009 (Amphibia: Microhylidae) in Brazil, the first outside its type locality

We provide the first record of Chiasmocleis supercilialbus for Brazil. Thre especimens were collected at Seringal Etelvi, Reserva Extrativista Chico Mendes, state of Acre, Brazil. This record extends the distribution of the species 200 km east from the type locality situated at Manu National Park, Manu River, Departamento Madre de Dios, Peru.

Herpetofauna da floresta do baixo rio Moa em Cruzeiro do Sul, Acre - Brasil

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo apresentar o resultado de um levantamento herpetofaunístico realizado na floresta do baixo rio Moa, em Cruzeiro do Sul, Acre. O estudo foi realizado entre fevereiro de 2008 e setembro de 2009, sendo as espécies registradas através de armadilhas de interceptação e queda (AIQ), procura limita por tempo (PLT), busca ativa (BA), amostragem em sítios reprodutivos (ASR) e encontros ocasionais (EO). A herpetofauna foi amostrada em uma área de aproximadamente 256 hectares em áreas de propriedades particulares, incluindo área aberta antropizada, adjacente a floresta, composta principalmente por pastagens. Na área florestada a amostragem foi realizada em duas trilhas com fisionomias diferentes (Mata de Terra Firme e Mata de Várzea). Foram registradas 103 espécies, sendo 50 de anfíbios anuros e 53 de répteis (35 serpentes, 17 lagartos e um crocodiliano). A curva do coletor atingiu a assíntota para os anfíbios anuros, mas não para os lagartos, serpentes e a herpetofauna (todos os grupos). Nas áreas florestadas foi registrada a maioria das espécies de anfíbios anuros, o mesmo sendo observado para os répteis, sendo que a maioria destes foi registrada na mata de terra firme. A maioria dos anfíbios foi registrada durante a PLT e a ASR, enquanto os répteis foram através de EO e também por PLT. Espera-se um número maior de espécies de serpentes para a localidade do que a riqueza registrada (35 espécies). Salienta-se a importância da preservação de áreas florestadas particulares abrangendo tanto habitats nas margens de rios sujeitos a alagação periódica como de terra firme, uma vez que existem diferenças na composição herpetofaunística em relação a estrutura das florestas. A preservação das áreas de floresta é fundamental para manutenção da diversidade de anfíbios e répteis na Amazônia, que tem sua riqueza diminuída com a transformação de florestas em pastagens e também com a retirada de madeira e abertura de clareiras.

Serpentes do Estado de Rondônia, Brasil

Esse estudo teve como objetivo atualizar a lista de serpentes do estado de Rondônia a partir de levantamento bibliográfico, e fornecer algumas informações sobre a distribuição das espécies. São registradas para o estado de Rondônia 118 espécies de serpentes, pertencentes a oito famílias: Leptotyphlopidae (4 espécies), Typhlopidae (1), Aniliidae (1), Boidae (6), Colubridae (21), Dipsadidae (67), Elapidae (9) e Viperidae (9). Dessas, 109 foram registradas para áreas de floresta amazônica e 27 em cerrado. A menor riqueza encontrada em cerrado (27 espécies) provavelmente deve estar associada aos poucos trabalhos desenvolvidos nessas áreas e pelo fato dessa formação vegetal ocupar uma área de cerca de apenas 5% do estado. Nove espécies (Epicrates crassus, Chironius flavolineatus, Drymoluber brazili, Apostolepis striata, Oxyrhopus rhombifer, Pseudoboa nigra, Xenodon merremii, Bothrops mattogrossensis e Crotalus durissus) foram registradas exclusivamente em áreas de cerrado, sendo formas associadas a esse ambiente na Amazônia. Seis espécies (Masticophis mentovarius, Apostolepis striata, Erythrolamprus mimus, Micrurus mipartitus, Micrurus sp. e Bothrocophias microphthalmus) são conhecidas no Brasil apenas para Rondônia. Existem lacunas sobre o conhecimento das serpentes em algumas regiões de Rondônia, sendo essencial a realização de mais estudos de inventário. Tal necessidade se torna mais urgente devido à crescente destruição dos habitats ao longo do Cerrado e nas porções sul da Amazônia.

Micrurus annellatus annellatus (Peters, 1871) (Serpentes: Elapidae): distribution extension in the state of Acre, northern Brazil

The annellated coral snake Micrurus annellatus (Peters, 1871) occurs from southern Ecuador and southeastern Colombia to southeastern Peru and north of Bolivia. Only Micrurus a. bolivianus has been recorded in Brazil, in the state of Amazonas. Herein we provide two records of Micrurus a. annellatus from Brazil in the state of Acre.

Squamata, Serpentes, Dipsadidae, Philodryas viridissima (Linnaeus, 1758): First record in the state of Acre, northern Brazil

The common green racer Philodryas viridissima (Linnaeus, 1758) is an arboreal and terrestrial snake species broadly distributed in southern Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Guiana, Suriname, French Guiana, Paraguay up to Argentina, and most of Brazil. In this study, we report the first record of P. viridissima in the state of Acre, Brazil, in the Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve. This record expands the species distribution in 280 km to the southwest of Boca do Acre, state of Amazonas, which was the nearest record of this species in Brazilian Amazon until now.

Anurans of a disturbed area in Jarú, Rondônia, Brazil

This paper presents a checklist of anurans species and their distribution in a disturbed area in the municipality of Jarú, Rondônia state, Brazil. Nineteen species belonging to eight families were sampled with pitfall traps and time constrained searches. About 70% of the species were found in a secondary forest and 40% were found only in this environment, while about 57% were found in pastures, with 26% of species being registered only in this habitat. Our results were similar to those of previous studies in other disturbed areas of Rondônia. Species that can be found in different habits were unevenly distributed, with forested environments harboring more species. Despite its nearness to Cerrado and the large number of open areas available, most species found are typical of the Amazon forest.

Squamata, Serpentes, Viperidae, Bothrocophias hyoprora (Amaral, 1935): distribution extension in the state of Acre, northern Brazil

The Amazonian toadheaded pitviper Bothrocophias hyoprora (Amaral, 1935) is known from Brazil (states of Amazonas and Rondônia), Colombia, eastern Equador, Peru, and Bolivia. We report the first record of this species from the state of Acre (Brazil) in the Serra do Divisor National Park. This record extends the species distribution in 540 km to the southwest of Tabatinga, state of Amazonas, which was the nearest record of this species in Brazilian Amazon.

Herpetofauna da área do Igarapé Esperança na Reserva Extrativista Riozinho da Liberdade, Acre - Brasil

A região do Alto Juruá localiza-se no estado do Acre (oeste da Amazônia brasileira) e é uma região conhecida por apresentar uma alta diversidade e também considerada prioritária para inventariamento e conservação da herpetofauna. Este trabalho foi realizado entre agosto de 2006 a junho de 2008 e apresenta a lista de espécies de anfíbios e répteis da área do Igarapé Esperança na Reserva Extrativista Riozinho da Liberdade, Acre. Quatro métodos amostrais foram empregados para inventariar a herpetofauna: procura limitada por tempo, armadilhas de interceptação e queda, registros auditivos e encontros ocasionais. Foram registradas 162 espécies, sendo 83 de anfíbios (80 anuros, dois gimnofionos e uma salamandra) e 79 de répteis (29 lagartos, 42 serpentes, um anfisbênio, quatro quelônios e três jacarés). Dessas espécies, onze (Adelphobates quinquevittatus, Hyalinobatrachium munozorum, Pristimantis academicus, P. aureolineatus, Syncope antenori, Alopoglossus buckleyi, Drymobius rhombifer, Liophis dorsocorallinus, L. taeniogaster, Umbrivaga pygmaea e Micrurus remotus) foram registradas pela primeira vez para o Acre, sendo que seis delas (H. munozorum, P. academicus, P. aureolineatus, S. antenori, A. buckleyi e L. dorsocorallinus) consistem também os primeiros registros para o Brasil. Salienta-se aqui a importância da forma do uso das florestas pelas populações tradicionais (indígenas, extrativistas e ribeirinhos) e das áreas protegidas na conservação da alta biodiversidade encontrada no Alto Juruá e também a necessidade de estudos sobre o uso de algumas espécies (especialmente de quelônios e crocodilianos) para analisar possíveis impactos sobre as populações desses animais.

Bothriopsis bilineata bilineata (Wied, 1821) (Serpentes: Viperidae): new records in the states of Amazonas, Mato Grosso and Rondônia, northern Brazil

Although widely distributed in the Brazilian Amazonia, there are few published records of Bothriopsis bilineata in this region, with large gaps between them. This scarcity of reports of B. bilineata in nature may be caused by its arboreal habits, cryptic color, and a possible low density in many areas. Here we provide new registers of the subspecies B. b. bilineata, improving the knowledge of its distribution.

Amphibia, Anura, Hemiphractidae, Hemiphractus helioi Sheil and Mendelson, 2001: distribution extension in the state of Acre and second record for Brazil

We report the second records of Hemiphractus helioi from Brazil based on specimens collected during field studies in forest of Môa River, Cruzeiro do Sul, Acre. These new records extended the range of this species about 100 km to the east from the nearest collection site known in Parque Nacional da Serra do Divisor.

Hábitos alimentares de serpentes em Espigão do Oeste, Rondônia, Brasil

O presente estudo teve como objetivo estudar os hábitos alimentares das serpentes em Espigão do Oeste, Rondônia (Sudoeste da Amazônia), Brasil. As serpentes foram registradas através de procura limitada por tempo, armadilhas de interceptação e queda, coleta por terceiros e encontros ocasionais. As serpentes coletadas tiveram o conteúdo estomacal e intestinal examinados. Em 89 espécimes pertencentes a 31 espécies de serpentes foram registradas informações sobre alimentação. Dos 114 itens registrados (conteúdos estomacais e observações na natureza), a maioria foi de anuros (38%), seguidos de mamíferos (16%), lagartos (15%), moluscos (13%), aves (5%) e serpentes (5%). A maioria das espécies de serpentes de Espigão do Oeste preda lagartos, assim como na Amazônia Central (Manaus). Uma menor proporção de serpentes na Amazônia utiliza anuros em relação às regiões do Pantanal, sul e sudeste do Brasil. Essas diferenças podem ser devidas à maior proporção de Xenodontinae nas comunidades extra-amazônicas, uma vez que muitas das serpentes desse clado predam anuros. A maioria dos anfíbios anuros e lagartos encontrados nos conteúdos estomacais das serpentes apresentam hábitos terrícolas, o que deve estar associado com a maioria das espécies de serpentes (52%) forragearem sobre o chão.

Descrição do canto de anúncio e dimorfismo sexual em Proceratophrys concavitympanum Giaretta, Bernarde & Kokubum, 2000

São descritos o canto de anúncio, os machos e dados de dimorfismo sexual em Proceratophrys concavitympanum, coletados em Aripuanã (Mato Grosso) e em Espigão do Oeste (Rondônia), Brasil. Os machos foram observados em atividade de vocalização ao longo de pequenos riachos em área de mata primária da Floresta Amazônica. O canto de anúncio de Proceratophrys concavitympanum descrito aqui é comparado com os cantos de outras espécies do gênero Proceratophrys.

Seasonality, age structure and reproduction of Leptodactylus (Lithodytes) lineatus (Anura, Leptodactylidae) in Rondônia state, southwestern Amazon, Brazil

Leptodactylus(Lithodytes) lineatus (Schneider, 1799) is an Amazonian leaf litter frog considered rare or uncommon in several studies on anuran communities. Despite being a widely distributed frog in Amazonian forests, knowledge of the biology and ecology of this species is relatively scarce. This species has been reported to live in association with leaf-cutter ant nests (Atta spp.) during the breeding period. In this paper we present data on the seasonality of this species and some reproductive information gathered at a locality of Rondônia state, northwestern Brazil. Field work was carried out between April 2001 and March 2002, with the use of pitfall traps with drift fences as a survey method. Leptodactylus (L.) lineatus had a higher capture frequency in this locality compared to that of other studies carried out in other Amazonian localities, possibly because this species has secretive habits, such as calling and breeding from nests of leaf-cutting ants, and are difficult to find during visual encounter surveys. The breeding period occurs between October and March. Calling males and egg-bearing females were found between September and February and juvenile recruitment occurred mainly from the end of the rainy season to the beginning of the dry season (February to June). Males and females show sexual dimorphism in SVL, females being significantly larger than males. The number of ovarian eggs per female varies from 110 to 328 and analyses indicate that there is a significant correlation with SVL.

Uso do hábitat, atividade e comportamento de Bothriopsis bilineatus e de Bothrops atrox (Serpentes: Viperidae) na floresta do Rio Moa, Acre, Brasil

As serpentes Bothriopsis bilineatus e Bothrops atrox são viperídeos simpátricos na Amazônia, sendo B. atrox comum e B. bilineatus mais rara. Ambas espécies apresentam uma dieta generalista, sendo que B. atrox forrageia principalmente sobre o chão e B. bilineatus é mais arborícola. Aqui, nós descrevemos o uso do habitat e padrão de atividade dessas duas serpentes em uma floresta amazônica no Rio Moa, Cruzeiro do Sul, Acre. Esse estudo foi baseado em observações durante procura visual limitada por tempo e encontros ocasionais de serpentes em uma trilha que é sazonalmente alagada e outra de floresta de terra firme. Durante um total de 360 horas de procura visual limitada por tempo, 11 B. bilineatus e seis B. atrox foram encontradas, enquanto uma B. bilineatus e seis B. atrox foram encontradas durante encontros ocasionais. Todas 12 B. bilineatus foram observadas sobre a vegetação, enquanto somente cinco B. atrox estavam sobre a vegetação (todos juvenis). Durante procura visual limitada por tempo B. bilineatus foi mais comum (0,03 serpentes/hora) do que B. atrox (0,016 serpentes/hora). Essas duas espécies apresentaram diferenças no uso do espaço, sendo que B. bilineatus ocorreu principalmente na área da floresta de terra firme, rica em palmeiras e que não é sazonalmente alagada. Bothrops atrox foi mais abundante na área da floresta próxima aos lagos, que é sazonalmente alagada. Diferenças entre essas duas áreas como a estrutura da vegetação, tipos de ambientes aquáticos, disponibilidade de presas e fatores históricos são possivelmente os fatores responsáveis pela diferença na ocorrência dessas espécies. Estas duas serpentes foram encontradas nos meses mais chuvosos e não foram registradas nos meses mais secos, período em que também existe menor disponibilidade de anuros nesses ambientes. Na maior parte da Amazônia, B. bilineatus parece ser menos frequente que B. atrox, mas na área do presente estudo, a primeira parece ser mais frequente que a última durante procura visual limitada por tempo.