Regulation of an antibiotic resistance efflux pump by quorum sensing and a TetR-family repressor in Chromobacterium subtsugae

The soil bacterium Chromobacterium substugae uses a single LuxI-R-type quorum-sensing system, CviI-R, to regulate genes in a cell density-dependent manner. CviI synthesizes the signal N-hexanoyl-homoserine lactone (C6-HSL) and CviR is a C6-HSL-responsive cytoplasmic transcription regulator. C6-HSL-bound CviR activates dozens of genes, for example the cdeAB-oprM cluster coding for an efflux pump conferring antibiotic resistance. The cdeAB-oprM genes are also regulated by an antibiotic-responsive transcription factor, CdeR, which represses expression of these genes. We are interested in understanding how C. subtsugae integrates different environmental cues to regulate antibiotic resistance. In this study, we sought to delineate the mechanism of regulation of the cdeAB-oprM genes by CviR and CdeR. In recombinant E. coli, the cdeA promoter is activated by CviR and repressed by CdeR. We identify non-overlapping sequence elements in the cdeA promoter that are required for CviR activation and CdeR repression, respectively. We also examined the role of CdeR in modulating cdeA activation by C6-HSL in C. subtsugae. We show that CviR and CdeR can independently modulate transcription from the cdeA promoter in C. subtsugae, consistent with the conclusion that CviR and CdeR regulate the cdeAB-oprM genes by interacting directly with different binding sites in the cdeA promoter. These results contribute to a molecular understanding of how the cdeAB-oprM genes are regulated and provide new insight into how C. subtsugae integrates different environmental cues to regulate antibiotic resistance.

An Amino Acid Substitution in Elongation Factor EF-G1A Alters the Antibiotic Susceptibility of Pseudomonas aeruginosa LasR-Null Mutants

The opportunistic bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa uses the LasR-I quorum-sensing system to increase resistance to the aminoglycoside antibiotic tobramycin. Paradoxically, lasR-null mutants are commonly isolated from chronic human infections treated with tobramycin, suggesting there may be a mechanism that permits the emergence of lasR-null mutants under tobramycin selection. We hypothesized that some other genetic mutations that emerge in these isolates might modulate the effects of lasR-null mutations on antibiotic resistance. To test this hypothesis, we inactivated lasR in several highly tobramycin-resistant isolates from long-term evolution experiments. In some of these isolates, inactivating lasR further increased resistance, compared with decreasing resistance of the wild-type ancestor. These strain-dependent effects were due to a G61A nucleotide polymorphism in the fusA1 gene encoding amino acid substitution A21T in the translation elongation factor EF-G1A. The EF-G1A mutational effects required the MexXY efflux pump and the MexXY regulator ArmZ. The fusA1 mutation also modulated ΔlasR mutant resistance to two other antibiotics, ciprofloxacin and ceftazidime. Our results identify a gene mutation that can reverse the direction of the antibiotic selection of lasR mutants, a phenomenon known as sign epistasis, and provide a possible explanation for the emergence of lasR-null mutants in clinical isolates. IMPORTANCE One of the most common mutations in Pseudomonas aeruginosa clinical isolates is in the quorum sensing lasR gene. In laboratory strains, lasR disruption decreases resistance to the clinical antibiotic tobramycin. To understand how lasR mutations emerge in tobramycin-treated patients, we mutated lasR in highly tobramycin-resistant laboratory strains and determined the effects on resistance. Disrupting lasR enhanced the resistance of some strains. These strains had a single amino acid substitution in the translation factor EF-G1A. The EF-G1A mutation reversed the selective effects of tobramycin on lasR mutants. These results illustrate how adaptive mutations can lead to the emergence of new traits in a population and are relevant to understanding how genetic diversity contributes to the progression of disease during chronic infections.

Tobramycin adaptation alters the antibiotic susceptibility of Pseudomonas aeruginosa quorum sensing-null mutants

The opportunistic bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa uses the LasR-I quorum sensing system to increase resistance to the aminioglycoside antibiotic tobramycin. Paradoxically, lasR-null mutants are commonly isolated from chronic human infections treated with tobramycin, suggesting there may be a mechanism allowing the lasR-null mutants to persist under tobramycin selection. We hypothesized that the effects of inactivating lasR on tobramycin resistance might be dependent on the presence or absence of other gene mutations in that strain, a phenomenon known as epistasis. To test this hypothesis, we inactivated lasR in several highly tobramycin-resistant isolates from long-term evolution experiments. We show that the effects of ΔlasR on tobramycin resistance are strain dependent. The effects can be attributed to a point mutation in the gene encoding the translation elongation factor fusA1 (G61A nucleotide substitution), which confers a strong selective advantage to lasR-null PA14 under tobramycin selection. This fusA1 G61A mutation results in increased activity of the MexXY efflux pump and expression of the mexXY regulator ArmZ. The fusA1 mutation can also modulate ΔlasR mutant resistance to two other antibiotics, ciprofloxacin and ceftazidime. Our results demonstrate the importance of epistatic gene interactions on antibiotic susceptibility of lasR-null mutants. These results support of the idea that gene interactions might play a significant role in the evolution of quorum sensing in P. aeruginosa.

Cross-species activation of hydrogen cyanide production by a promiscuous quorum-sensing receptor promotes Chromobacterium subtsugae competition in a dual-species model

Many saprophytic bacteria have LuxR-I-type acyl-homoserine lactone (AHL) quorum-sensing systems that may be important for competing with other bacteria in complex soil communities. LuxR AHL receptors specifically interact with cognate AHLs to cause changes in expression of target genes. Some LuxR-type AHL receptors have relaxed specificity and are responsive to non-cognate AHLs. These promiscuous receptors might be used to sense and respond to AHLs produced by other bacteria by eavesdropping. We are interested in understanding the role of eavesdropping during interspecies competition. The soil saprophyte Chromobacterium subtsugae has a single AHL circuit, CviR-I, which produces and responds to N-hexanoyl-HSL (C6-HSL). The AHL receptor CviR can respond to a variety of AHLs in addition to C6-HSL. In prior studies we have utilized a coculture model with C. subtsugae and another soil saprophyte, Burkholderia thailandensis. Using this model, we previously showed that promiscuous activation of CviR by B. thailandensis AHLs provides a competitive advantage to C. subtsugae. Here, we show that B. thailandensis AHLs activate transcription of dozens of genes in C. subtsugae, including the hcnABC genes coding for production of hydrogen cyanide. We show that hydrogen cyanide production is population density-dependent and demonstrate that the cross-induction of hydrogen cyanide by B. thailandensis AHLs provides a competitive advantage to C. subtsugae. Our results provide new information on C. subtsugae quorum sensing and are the basis for future studies aimed at understanding the role of eavesdropping in interspecies competition.

Functional Status of Senior Citizens of a Metropolitan City in Morang

Background Functional abilities start to decelerate after the age of 70 and causes need for assistance to do their basic activities of daily living (BADL) as well as instrumental activities of daily living (IADL). Objective To find out the functional status of senior citizens of a Metropolitan city in Morang. Method A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out at Biratnagar Metropolitan City among 254 senior citizens receiving old age allowance using cluster sampling technique. Data were collected through face to face interview and measuring height and weight by researcher herself for the period of four weeks. Basic activities of daily living and instrumental activities of daily living were assessed using Katz Index of Basic Activities of Daily Living and Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living tool with some modifications. Chi square test was used to assess the association between variables. Result About 48.4% and 90.6% of senior citizens had dependency in Basic Activities of Daily Living and Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living respectively. The most common dependency for Basic Activities of Daily Living and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living was control of urination and defecation (31.9%) and using telephones (75.2%) respectively. Basic activities of daily living was significantly associated with age (p=0.0017), sex (p=0.013), literacy status (p=0.001), years of smoking (p=0.0029), social participation (0.0029) and history of fall within 1 year (p=0.038). Likewise Instrumental Activities of Daily Living was significantly associated with age (p=0.03), sex (p=0.035), literacy status (p=0.002), exercise (p=0.033) and social participation (p= 0.001). Conclusion It is concluded that about half of the senior citizens are dependent in Basic Activities of Daily Living and almost all of them are dependent in Instrumental Activities of Daily Living. So senior citizen clubs/ groups are suggested to be strengthened which may.

Angiographic Severity of Coronary Artery Disease in Diabetic and Non-diabetic Acute STEMI Patients in a Tertiary Care Centre of Nepal

Background Patients with diabetes mellitus have a higher prevalence of atherosclerotic heart disease and a higher incidence of myocardial infarction than the general population. Definitive diagnosis and precise assessment of anatomic severity of Coronary Artery Disease requires invasive diagnostic modality like coronary angiography. Objective To study angiographic characteristics and severity involving coronary arteries in patients with acute ST segment elevation Myocardial infarction and to compare the same in diabetics and non-diabetics. Method Among 150 patients with acute coronary syndrome, 75 diabetics and 75 nondiabetics admitted in Manmohan Cardiothoracic vascular and transplant Centre were selected randomly during a period of one year formed the study group. Random Blood Sugar, Fasting Blood Sugar was done in all 150 patients, HbA1c in all diabetics. All subjects with acute ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction were taken up for coronary angiography intended for primary PCI. Result In our study, 35 (46.7%) out of 75 diabetic patients had triple or multi-vessel disease compared to 10 (13.4%) out of 75 non diabetics. Non-diabetic patients had significantly higher single vessel disease (65.3%). There was a statistically significant association of duration of DM with vessels involved. The occurrence of Triple Vessel Disease/Multivessel Disease was significantly higher in the patients with DM duration > 10 years compared to patients with DM duration < 10 years (64.7% vs. 35.3%, P < 0.001), however there was no significant difference in type of vessel involved. Similarly, a significantly higher proportion of Triple vessel disease was observed in patients with poor glycemic control (HbA1c > 8.5%). 72.2% of the patients with HbA1c > 8.5% had Triple vessel disease/Multi vessel disease, whereas patients with good glycemic control (HbA1c < 7.0%) had predominantly Single vessel disease (90.0%), with no occurrence of Triple vessel disease/Multi vessel disease Conclusion Diabetic patients presenting with ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction are likely to have triple/multiple vessel disease compared to non-diabetic patients. The occurrence of Triple Vessel Disease/Multivessel Disease was significantly higher in the patients with DM duration > 10 years compared to patients with DM duration <10 years.

Multiple trauma management in mountain environments - a scoping review : Evidence based guidelines of the International Commission for Mountain Emergency Medicine (ICAR MedCom). Intended for physicians and other advanced life support personnel

Background

Multiple trauma in mountain environments may be associated with increased morbidity and mortality compared to urban environments.

Objective

To provide evidence based guidance to assist rescuers in multiple trauma management in mountain environments.

Eligibility criteria

All articles published on or before September 30th 2019, in all languages, were included. Articles were searched with predefined search terms.

Sources of evidence

PubMed, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and hand searching of relevant studies from the reference list of included articles.

Charting methods

Evidence was searched according to clinically relevant topics and PICO questions.

Results

Two-hundred forty-seven articles met the inclusion criteria. Recommendations were developed and graded according to the evidence-grading system of the American College of Chest Physicians. The manuscript was initially written and discussed by the coauthors. Then it was presented to ICAR MedCom in draft and again in final form for discussion and internal peer review. Finally, in a face-to-face discussion within ICAR MedCom consensus was reached on October 11th 2019, at the ICAR fall meeting in Zakopane, Poland.

Conclusions

Multiple trauma management in mountain environments can be demanding. Safety of the rescuers and the victim has priority. A crABCDE approach, with haemorrhage control first, is central, followed by basic first aid, splinting, immobilisation, analgesia, and insulation. Time for on-site medical treatment must be balanced against the need for rapid transfer to a trauma centre and should be as short as possible. Reduced on-scene times may be achieved with helicopter rescue. Advanced diagnostics (e.g. ultrasound) may be used and treatment continued during transport.

Direct Observation of Large Flexoelectric Bending at the Nanoscale in Lanthanide Scandates

There is a growing interest in the flexoelectric effect, since at the nanoscale it is predicted to be very large. However, there have been no direct observations of flexoelectric bending consistent with current theoretical work that implies strains comparable to or exceeding the yield strains of typical materials. Here we show a direct observation of extraordinarily large, two-dimensional reversible bending at the nanoscale in dysprosium scandate due to the converse flexoelectric effect, with similar results for terbium and gadolinium scandate. Within a transmission electron microscope, thin features bend up to 90° with radii of curvature of about 1 μm, corresponding to very large nominal strains. Analysis including independent experimental determination of the flexoelectric coefficient is semiquantitatively consistent with interpreting the results as due to flexoelectricity. These results experimentally demonstrate large flexoelectric bending at the nanoscale.

Coxsackie B Virus Infection as a rare cause of Acute Renal Failure and Hepatitis

We report a 37 year female patient, admitted with complains of fever, jaundice and myalgia of seven days. There was no history of trauma, drug abuse, seizure or vigorous exercise nor history of renal and musculoskeletal disease. Here we have discussed the clinical features, biochemical derangements, diagnosis of coxsackie B virus, multi organ involvement and need of urgent hemodialysis for appropriate management of the case.

Ultrasound evaluation of normal orbital preseptal thickness

INTRODUCTION

Orbital preseptal thickness is an important parameter not only in diagnosis of orbital cellulitis but also in recent classification and management of dark eye circle (DEC).

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate normal preseptal thickness and collect baseline data in normal skin in a given population with no orbital pathology.

MATERIALS & METHOD

Ultrasound was performed on 42 patients (23 females and 19 males) with clinically normal eyes and orbits for evaluation of normal orbital preseptal thickness. The age ranged between 15 to 35 years with a mean age of 24.9 years.

RESULTS

Our study concluded that normal preseptal thickness ranged from 2.1 mm to 5.5 mm. Mean preseptal thickness for both sides was 3.9 mm.

CONCLUSION

Ultrasound can be used as quick, reliable and cost-effective modality for evaluation of orbital preseptal thickness.

Perceived Health Promoting Education Needs of Middle-aged Population in Dhulikhel Municipality of Nepal

Background Health promoting education need assessment is of utter importance while conducting health promoting education programs. However little efforts have been put on this by the policy level authorities and there are no studies to assess the perceived health promoting education needs of the middle aged population of Nepal till date. Objective The objective of this study was to assess the perceived health promoting education needs of middle-aged population in Dhulikhel municipality. Method A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted among 300 respondents using two staged cluster and systematic technique. Face to face interview technique was used for data collection. T-test was used for comparison of dependent variables with independent variables. Result The study revealed that the mean education need score was 66.66±16.09 (in a score of minimum 25 and maximum 125). Cancer prevention was perceived as the topic of highest education need and retirement planning as the topic of least education need. There was statistically significant difference in the mean perceived education need score between male and female (p=0.048), respondents with exposure and non-exposure to health related programs on mass-media (p=0.020) and mental component summary score < 50 and mental component summary scores >=50 (p=0.048). Conclusion This study suggested that the community people have perceived moderate level of health promoting education need. Since cancer prevention was the highest rated topic followed by chronic illness prevention and dementia, it is recommended to focus on these topics while organizing any health promoting education programs in the community.

Outcomes Bronchoscopic Evaluation in A University Hospital

INTRODUCTION

Study of clinical profile of the patients and diagnostic yield of the selected bronchoscopic procedures gives us important information in clinical decision making and better patient care. There are hardly very few studies regarding these entities. Therefore, we decided to study clinical characteristics and outcomes of the patients who underwent bronchoscopic evaluation in our setting.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study the consecutive patients who underwent bronchoscopy from 1st May 2013- 30th April 2015 in division of pulmonary, critical care and sleep medicine. The main procedure performed was bronchoalveolar lavage.

RESULTS

The mean age was 54.71 years with 76 (76%) males. Recurrent hemoptysis in 58 (58%) patients were the commonest indication. Total 95 (95%) patients have chest X-ray abnormalities. The commonest bronchoscopic finding was bronchiectasis 23 (23%) of patients followed by chronic bronchitis in 18 (18%) and endobronchial tuberculosis in 16 (16%). Total 10 (71%) of the 14 bronchoscopically suspected lung cancer patients have intraluminal lesions. Bronchoalveolar lavage culture for tuberculosis showed growth in 46 (46%), positive for malignancy in 7 (7%) positive Ziehl Neelson stain for tuberculosis in 6 (6%).

CONCLUSIONS

Bronchoscopic evaluation of patients with pulmonary diseases gives us a lot of information that may help us in better patient care and bronchoalveolar lavage has high diagnostic yield in diagnosing pulmonary tuberculosis.

When does atomic resolution plan view imaging of surfaces work?

Surface structures that are different from the corresponding bulk, reconstructions, are exceedingly difficult to characterize with most experimental methods. Scanning tunneling microscopy, the workhorse for imaging complex surface structures of metals and semiconductors, is not as effective for oxides and other insulating materials. This paper details the use of transmission electron microscopy plan view imaging in conjunction with image processing for solving complex surface structures. We address the issue of extracting the surface structure from a weak signal with a large bulk contribution. This method requires the sample to be thin enough for kinematical assumptions to be valid. The analysis was performed on two sets of data, c(6×2) on the (100) surface and (3×3) on the (111) surface of SrTiO₃, and was unsuccessful in the latter due to the thickness of the sample and a lack of inversion symmetry. The limits and the functionality of this method are discussed.

Risk Factors of Preinvasive and Invasive Cervical Cancer

Aims: The objective of this study was to assess the risk factors of preinvasive and invasive cervical cancer.Methods: This was a prospective hospital based case control study conducted from April 2012 to April 2013, which included 91 patients in each group. Among cases, 34 were Cervical Cancer and 57 were Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia. Simple random method was adopted for selecting patients. Prefixed questionnaire was used. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS 19.0.Results: In multivariate analysis, history of abnormal vaginal discharge and cigarette smoking were significantly associated with cervical cancer (p value of 0.001 and 0.003 respectively) and Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia (p <0.001). Whereas, early age at first sexual intercourse ≤ 16 years and more than one sexual partner of husband had only borderline significance for Cervical cancer (p value 0.049 and 0.038 respectively).Conclusions: Cigarette smoking and abnormal vaginal discharge were significantly associated with cervical cancer. 

Surface determination through atomically resolved secondary-electron imaging

Unique determination of the atomic structure of technologically relevant surfaces is often limited by both a need for homogeneous crystals and ambiguity of registration between the surface and bulk. Atomically resolved secondary-electron imaging is extremely sensitive to this registration and is compatible with faceted nanomaterials, but has not been previously utilized for surface structure determination. Here we report a detailed experimental atomic-resolution secondary-electron microscopy analysis of the c(6 × 2) reconstruction on strontium titanate (001) coupled with careful simulation of secondary-electron images, density functional theory calculations and surface monolayer-sensitive aberration-corrected plan-view high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. Our work reveals several unexpected findings, including an amended registry of the surface on the bulk and strontium atoms with unusual seven-fold coordination within a typically high surface coverage of square pyramidal TiO5 units. Dielectric screening is found to play a critical role in attenuating secondary-electron generation processes from valence orbitals.

Status of Chronic Kidney Disease Patients Registered in National Kidney Center, Banasthali, Kathmandu

Chronic kidney disease is a worldwide public health problem. In Nepal, Chronic kidney disease patients are increasing and the management of this disease is very expensive compared to other chronic diseases? We assessed the socioeconomic status of chronic kidney disease patients registered in National Kidney Centre, Banasthali, Kathmandu. The study used descriptive cross sectional design. Ninety six samples were collected between 15- 31 October, 2012.The mean age of the patients was 47 years, with almost half of the patients (46%) from 41-60 years age group. Among the patients, 65 % were male, 85% were married, 80% were literate, 57% were past smoker and 75% were drinker and 59% were from Kathmandu valley. Likewise, most of them were Newar, work as housewife as the main occupation. One third (37%) had to sell their property for the treatment. On an average patient spent Rs.240000 per year in dialysis. Similarly, medication cost was Rs.180000 and transplantation cost was Rs.500000 to 1000000. Preventive measures of the disease and subsidy in the treatment will be beneficial for the needy people. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jmmihs.v1i4.11997Journal of Manmohan Memorial Institute of Health Sciences Vol. 1, Issue 4, 2015Page : 19-23 

Identification of hyperhalogens in Agn(BO2)m (n = 1–3, m = 1–2) clusters: anion photoelectron spectroscopy and density functional calculations

We identified hyperhalogens in Ag_n(BO₂)_m (n = 1–3, m = 1–2) clusters by using anion photoelectron spectroscopy and density functional calculations.

Post Caesarean Caecal Perforation with Fecal Peritonitis

NJOG 2011 Nov-Dec; 6 (2): 58-59 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/njog.v6i2.6762

Pesticide Application and Food Safety Issue in Nepal

It has been increasing pest population including weeds, invasive species, insects and insect vectors and plant diseases, which lead to increase pesticides on crop production. Some of the pesticides also contribute to global warming and the depletion of the ozone layer. Pesticides are the potential health hazards which have drawn attention to everyone. The current practice adopted in pesticides control in Nepal appears not enough in line with food safety. This has created a promising threat in food safety and human health. In turn, global warming is also likely to increase pesticide use and degrade food safety situation. Necessary measures should be adopted to curb upcoming alarming situation in food safety.Key words: Food safety; Global warming; Pesticides; NepalThe Journal of Agriculture and Environment Vol:10, Jun.2009 Page: 128-132

Heterotopic pregnancy with spontaneous intrauterine conception: a rare clinical entity with diagnostic dilemma

Twenty-one years old primigravida presented to emergency with amenorrhoea for 2 months and complaints of severe abdominal pain for few hours. The pain was associated with 2 episodes of fainting attacks in emergency during the period of observation. Viable intrauterine pregnancy of 8-9 weeks along with collection of fluid in the Pouch of Douglas was detected by ultrasound examination and on laparotomy ectopic pregnancy was confirmed with haemoperitoneum of 2 litres with 500gms of clots. Histopathology report confirmed the tubal ectopic pregnancy and postlaparotomy, transvaginal sonography confirmed the salvage of the intrauterine pregnancy. Despite massive haemoperitoneum, the pregnancy continued till 40+6 weeks with uneventful antenatal period. She underwent emergency caesarean section for meconium stained liquor with foetal distress and delivered of an alive healthy female of 2.5 kg with good Apgar score.

A case report and overview of organophosphate (OP) poisoning

A case of organophosphate (OP) poisoning who recovered after requiring almost 1000 mg of atropine, 10 gm of PAM and ventilatory support for 7 days is presented here. The overview of organophosphate poisoning and its management is given. With the approach adopted, the mortality reported in the general medicine unit in the central hospital in Nepal is 7.4%. The two important aspects of the management are vigilance of the atropine drip, especially at night, and other physical and psychological support care of the patients.

Occurrence of aflatoxin in some of the food and feed in Nepal

BACKGROUND

There are many contaminants like aflatoxin present in food products. Aflatoxin in comparison to many other contaminants is very toxic and also carcinogenic. There are reports of outbreak of aflatoxin toxicity in many parts of the world.

AIM

To find out the level of aflatoxin in common food and feed.

SETTING

The study was conducted in 16 districts of the Eastern region of Nepal.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Samples were collected from retailers and whole sellers from 1995 to 2003. Common food items that had high chances of infestation were collected. Food sample were taken to the laboratory to estimate the level of aflatoxin. The thin layer chromatography method was used to detect aflatoxin in the samples and comparison of fluorescence of sample spot with fluorescence of standard for estimation.

RESULT

There were 832 samples for aflatoxin detection and estimation. One-third samples were found to be contaminated with aflatoxin. The highest percentage of contamination was found in peanut butter/vegetable oil (42.5%) and the lowest in areca nut (25%). Highest proportion of cornflakes samples were found to be contaminated with aflatoxin by more than the recommended value (30 ppb) and contamination in peanut was the lowest.

CONCLUSION

People consume many common food items that contain aflatoxin. It is of high importance for the concerned department to give attention to this important public health issue. Even in small doses, continuous consumption can lead to many health problems. So it is of paramount importance to detect and control these contaminants in food items.

Occurrence of aflatoxin in some of the food and feed in Nepal

BACKGROUND

There are many contaminants like aflatoxin present in food products. Aflatoxin in comparison to many other contaminants is very toxic and also carcinogenic. There are reports of outbreak of aflatoxin toxicity in many parts of the world.

AIM

To find out the level of aflatoxin in common food and feed.

SETTING

The study was conducted in 16 districts of the Eastern region of Nepal.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Samples were collected from retailers and whole sellers from 1995 to 2003. Common food items that had high chances of infestation were collected. Food sample were taken to the laboratory to estimate the level of aflatoxin. The thin layer chromatography method was used to detect aflatoxin in the samples and comparison of fluorescence of sample spot with fluorescence of standard for estimation.

RESULT

There were 832 samples for aflatoxin detection and estimation. One-third samples were found to be contaminated with aflatoxin. The highest percentage of contamination was found in peanut butter/vegetable oil (42.5%) and the lowest in areca nut (25%). Highest proportion of cornflakes samples were found to be contaminated with aflatoxin by more than the recommended value (30 ppb) and contamination in peanut was the lowest.

CONCLUSION

People consume many common food items that contain aflatoxin. It is of high importance for the concerned department to give attention to this important public health issue. Even in small doses, continuous consumption can lead to many health problems. So it is of paramount importance to detect and control these contaminants in food items.