Development of verbal control over bizarre gestures of retardates through imitative and nonimitative reinforcement procedures

Two retardates, manifesting hand gestures and minimal instructional control, were trained by imitative reinforcement procedures to imitate a response that was in contrast to gesturing. Next, with the contrast response continuing to be imitatively reinforced, gesturing was reduced by nonimitative reinforcement procedures; while providing facial and gesture cues, the adult said, "Do not do this". Imitative and nonimitative procedures were found to have the same effects on the contrast response as on the gesturing response, such that imitative procedures increased both responses, whereas nonimitative procedures decreased both. Nonperformance of gesturing was further maintained when (1) explicit verbal directions for nongesturing were superimposed upon the demonstrational-facial-verbal cues as these collective stimuli were faded out and (2) food reinforcers for nongesturing were gradually removed while social consequences continued to be administered.

The presence of security blankets or mothers (or both) affects distress during pediatric examinations

Because of parental interference, some pediatricians prefer examining children without parents nearby. Can inanimate, noninterfering attachment agents placate children during medical evaluations? Accompanied through random assignment by their mother, blanket, mother plus blanket, or no supportive agent, 64 blanket-attached or blanket-nonattached 3-year-olds underwent 4 routine medical procedures. Behavioral and physiological measures showed that mothers and blankets (for children attached to them) equally mitigated distress compared with no supportive agents. However, simultaneously presenting 2 attachment agents did not produce additive soothing effects. For comforting blanket-attached children during moderately upsetting medical procedures, blankets can function as appropriate maternal substitutes. Distress evidenced by children with no attachment agent demonstrates the undesirability of conducting medical examinations without supportive agents.

The presence of security blankets or mothers (or both) affects distress during pediatric examinations

Because of parental interference, some pediatricians prefer examining children without parents nearby. Can inanimate, noninterfering attachment agents placate children during medical evaluations? Accompanied through random assignment by their mother, blanket, mother plus blanket, or no supportive agent, 64 blanket-attached or blanket-nonattached 3-year-olds underwent 4 routine medical procedures. Behavioral and physiological measures showed that mothers and blankets (for children attached to them) equally mitigated distress compared with no supportive agents. However, simultaneously presenting 2 attachment agents did not produce additive soothing effects. For comforting blanket-attached children during moderately upsetting medical procedures, blankets can function as appropriate maternal substitutes. Distress evidenced by children with no attachment agent demonstrates the undesirability of conducting medical examinations without supportive agents.

Grandmothers' advice about disciplining grandchildren: is it accepted by mothers, and does its rejection influence grandmothers' subsequent guidance?

To test whether maternal grandmothers' advice affects mothers' punishing of their children and whether mothers' disciplinary actions influence subsequent suggestions by these grandmothers, 40 three-generational families were examined. After receiving advice purportedly from the grandmothers, mothers rewarded and punished their 10-year-olds' successes and errors on a task. Participants were in separate rooms so that simulated information about the grandmothers' advice, mothers' disciplinary decisions, and children's performances could be systematically manipulated under controlled conditions. The grandmothers' sham "suggestions" to mothers about punishing appeared either to begin leniently but progressively intensify or to start harshly but gradually mollify. Information to grandmothers about the mothers' "punishing" likewise either became increasingly severe or indulgent. All children, however, appeared to continue performing uniformly. Mothers generally modified their disciplining to correspond to the grandmothers' apparent advice, and grandmothers' actual suggestions conformed toward the mothers' simulated discipline. Grandmothers appear to be one of many influences affecting mothers' decisions about their children.

Grandmothers' advice about disciplining grandchildren: Is it accepted by mothers, and does its rejection influence grandmothers' subsequent guidance?

To test whether maternal grandmothers' advice affects mothers' punishing of their children and whether mothers' disciplinary actions influence subsequent suggestions by these grandmothers, 40 three-generational families were examined. After receiving advice purportedly from the grandmothers, mothers rewarded and punished their 10-year-olds' successes and errors on a task. Participants were in separate rooms so that simulated information about the grandmothers' advice, mothers' disciplinary decisions, and children's performances could be systematically manipulated under controlled conditions. The grandmothers' sham "suggestions" to mothers about punishing appeared either to begin leniently but progressively intensify or to start harshly but gradually mollify. Information to grandmothers about the mothers' "punishing" likewise either became increasingly severe or indulgent. All children, however, appeared to continue performing uniformly. Mothers generally modified their disciplining to correspond to the grandmothers' apparent advice, and grandmothers' actual suggestions conformed toward the mothers' simulated discipline. Grandmothers appear to be one of many influences affecting mothers' decisions about their children.

Grandmothers' responsibility in raising two-year olds facilitates their grandchildren's adaptive behavior: A preliminary intrafamilial investigation of mothers' and maternal grandmothers' effects

To investigate the extent to which the presence of their maternal grandmother might facilitate independent and adaptive responding, 2-year-old children were observed in a novel environment. Although the two-year-olds' extent of exploration and amount of time spent in a playroom were significantly grater when their mother was present than when an unfamiliar person was present, the grandmother's functional characteristics were on an intermediate level between those of the mother and those of the unfamiliar person. However, the more responsibilities that grandmothers reported customarily assuming for their grandchildren, the more similarly the children in the playroom reacted to their mothers and grandmothers. Extended involvement by a sensitive grandmother may enhance her grandchild's relationship with her.

Preferences for mothers and security blankets and their effectiveness as reinforcers for young children's behaviors

Preferences for attachment agents and the reinforcing efficacy of their individual components were assessed in 100 pre-school-aged children. In the first study, mothers were selected more often than the blanket or control; however, those children rated by their mothers as being blanket-attached approached their blanket more than no object. In the second study, children responded more frequently for their mother than for the blanket or no object. However, visual presentations of the blanket were more effective reinforcers for blanket-attached than for non-attached children. In the third study, auditory and visual features of the mother were tested as reinforcers. Control over responding was consistently achieved with contingent presentations of the mother's voice or her televised image, but not with corresponding presentations of an unfamiliar woman.