Correlation between crystal structures and polar (ferroelectric) properties of hybrids of haloantimonates(iii) and halobismuthates(iii)

Halogenoantimonates(iii) and halogenobismuthates(iii) are a highly versatile class of organic–inorganic hybrid materials, applicable in optoelectronics and switchable dielectric devices.

Symmetry breaking structural phase transitions, dielectric properties and molecular motions of formamidinium cations in 1D and 2D hybrid compounds: (NH2CHNH2)3[Bi2Cl9] and (NH2CHNH2)3[Bi2Br9]

Two organic–inorganic hybrid halobismuthates(iii), (NH₂CHNH₂)₃[Bi₂Cl₉] (FBC) and (NH₂CHNH₂)₃[Bi₂Br₉] (FBB), have been prepared with their structures revealed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction at various temperatures.

Widely used hardly known. An insight into electric and dynamic properties of formamidinium iodide

The simple organic crystal formamidinium iodide (FAI) appeared to be a novel semiconducting material in a wide temperature range. The electric properties of FAI and the role of formamidinium cation (FA⁺) in the molecular mechanism of the solid-to-solid phase transitions (at 345 K (III → II) and 388 K (II → I)) were analysed. The creation of the ferroelastic domain structure in phases III and II was proved on the basis of observation under a polarizing microscope. Moreover, the molecular arrangement of dipolar organic FA⁺ was studied by ¹H NMR (spin-lattice relaxation time) and vibrational spectroscopy supported by density functional theory. The theoretical results show a good agreement with the experimental data. The infrared spectrum in a harmonic approximation was calculated and a comparative vibrational analysis was performed. All used techniques showed that the prototypic phase I exhibits the feature of plastic phase.

The simple organic crystal formamidinium iodide (FAI) appeared to be a novel semiconducting material in a wide temperature range.

Structure and dynamics of [NH2(CH3)2]3Sb2Cl9 by means of 1H NMR relaxometry - quadrupolar relaxation enhancement effects

¹H spin-lattice relaxation experiments have been performed for [NH₂(CH₃)₂]₃Sb₂Cl₉ (tris(dimethylammonium)nonachlorodiantimonate(iii)) in the temperature range of 253-313 K and a broad range of frequencies - from 4 kHz to 40 MHz. From the analysis of quadrupolar relaxation enhancement effects (quadrupolar peaks) associated with ¹⁴N nuclei, two lattice sites characterized by different electric field gradient tensors have been revealed. The ¹⁴N quadrupolar couplings and asymmetry parameters at these sites differ by a factor of about two. Three motional processes have been identified and attributed to the overall dynamics of the NH₂(CH₃)₂ cations (slow motion), dynamics of the NH₂ groups (intermediate motion) and methyl group rotation (fast motion). It has been shown that the slow dynamics is only weakly temperature dependent, while the intermediate and fast motional processes are characterized by activation energies of 2.92 kJ mol^-1 and 0.41 kJ mol^-1, respectively. The correlation time of the slow dynamics is of the order of μs, while the intermediate dynamics is faster by 2-3 orders of magnitude (depending on temperature). All correlation times have turned out to be independent of the position of the cations in the lattice (they are the same for both lattice sites). The analysis presented in this work is an example of the potential of the quadrupolar relaxation enhancement effects as a method revealing information on the dynamics and structure of solids.

The lone-pair-electron-driven phase transition and order-disorder processes in thermochromic (2-MIm)SbI4 organic-inorganic hybrid

The easy to prepare and stable in air (2-methylimidazolium) tetraiodoantimoniate(iii) single-crystals with optical band gap of 2.17(1) eV at room temperature have been synthesized. The crystal structure features one-dimensional [SbI₄]^-_n anionic chains, which are intercepted with stacks of 2MIm⁺ ions. At 294/295 K, it undergoes a structural phase transition to an incommensurately modulated phase as a result of subtle, lone-pair-electron-driven distortions of the anions. Separately from the anion displacements, the ordering of 2MIm⁺ countercations takes place over a wide temperature range of the modulated phase. The disorder changes from dynamic to static around 200 K, which affects the crystal structure leading to discontinuities and step-like contraction of the lattice parameters. The material is thermochromic with prominent color changes, from raspberry to yellow at low temperatures. The calculated electronic structures and observed optical properties signify its semiconducting character.

Fourier transform infrared and Raman spectroscopy in the study of phase transitions in dipyrazolium iodide triiodide: Experimental and theoretical analysis

The paper presents the Infrared and Raman spectra of the powdered [C₃N₂H₅⁺]₂[I^-∙I₃^-] crystal at the temperature intervals of 11-270K, covering two low-temperature phase transitions: discontinuous at 182/188K (cooling/heating) and continuous at 254K. The research shows that the vibrational states of the pyrazolium cations change significantly during discontinuous phase transition (III→II), while the continuous nature of successive structural transformation is more subtle and displays an insignificant change in the temperature coefficient of numerous vibrations during the II→I PT at 254K. The spectacular changes at Raman spectra above 188K confirm a huge rebuilding of inorganic network from [I^-∙I₃^-] to [I₄^2-]. Additionally, a complete geometry optimization was carried out in the solid state in order to obtain minimum structures and bonding properties. The theoretical results correspond well with the experimental data. Moreover, the infrared spectrum in harmonic approximation was calculated, and a comparative vibrational analysis was performed. CRYSTAL09 vibrational results appear to be in a good agreement with the experimental ones.

Phase sequence in diisopropylammonium iodide: avoided ferroelectricity by the appearance of a reconstructed phase

Crystals of diisopropylammonium iodide are synthesized, grown and characterized.

Structure–property relationships in hybrid (C3H5N2)3[Sb2I9] and (C3H5N2)3[Bi2I9] isomorphs

Two hybrid crystals imidazolium iodoantimonate(iii) and iodobismuthate(iii) have been synthesized and characterized in a wide temperature range (100–350 K) by means of X-ray diffraction, dielectric spectroscopy, proton magnetic resonance, FT-IR spectroscopy and optical observations.

Periodic and incommensurately modulated phases in a (2-methylimidazolium)tetraiodobismuthate(iii) thermochromic organic–inorganic hybrid

Incommensurately modulated crystal structure of a (2-methylimidazolium)tetraiodobismuthate(iii) thermochromic organic–inorganic hybrid.

Unprecedented transformation of [I−·I3−] to [I42−] polyiodides in the solid state: structures, phase transitions and characterization of dipyrazolium iodide triiodide

Dipyrazolium iodide triiodide, [C₃N₂H₅⁺]₂[I⁻·I₃⁻], has been synthesized and studied by means of X-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, dielectric measurements, and UV-Vis spectroscopy.

Dielectric Properties and Characterisation of the Superionic Phase of [C(NH2)3]2SbCl5*[C(NH2)3]Cl (GHCA)

GHCA undergoes four phase transitions at Tc1 = 402 K, Tc2 = 373 K, Tc3 = 162 K, and Tc4 = 146 K. Below Tc3 it possesses pyroelectric properties with the spontaneous polarization vector (Ps) in the ac plane and the maximum along the c axis equal to 8 μC/m2. Dielectric dispersion studies of GHCA show that the main dielectric dispersion connected probably with collective motions of chlorine ions is above 1GHz. For the phase transition at Tc2 to a superionic phase the thermal dilatation and electric conductivity were measured. The anomalies of the electric conductivity at Tc2 and Tc1 were observed with large values of σ(10-3 S/m) above Tc3. The guanidinium cations above Tc2, besides reorientational motions, undergo slow self diffusion.

Dynamics of ferroelectric bis(imidazolium) pentachloroantimonate(III) by means of nuclear magnetic resonance 1H relaxometry and dielectric spectroscopy

Some of haloantimonates(III) and halobismuthates(III) are ferroelectric. Bis(imidazolium) pentachloroantimonate(III), (C3N2H5)2SbCl5 (abbreviation: ICA) is the first example of such compounds with a one-dimensional anionic chain which exhibits ferroelectric properties. The relation between the ionic dynamics and network structure and the ferroelectric features is not clear. Here Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) (1)H spin-lattice relaxation experiments at 25 MHz are reported for ICA in the temperature range of 80 K-360 K, covering ferroelectric-paraelectric and structural phase transitions of the compound occurring at 180 and 342 K, respectively. The relaxation process is biexponential in the whole temperature range indicating two dynamically nonequivalent types of imidazolium cations. Temperature dependences of both relaxation contributions allow for identifying three motional processes. Two of them are cation-specific - i.e. they are attributed to the two types of imidazolium cations, respectively. The third process involves both types of cations, and it is characterized by much lower activation energy. Moreover, the relaxation data (combined with (1)H second moment measurements) show that the ferroelectric-paraelectric phase transition mechanism is governed, to a large extent, by the anionic network arrangement. The NMR studies are complemented by dielectric spectroscopy experiments performed in the vicinity of the Curie temperature, TC = 180 K, to get insight into the mechanism of the ferroelectric-paraelectric phase transition. The dielectric dispersion data show critical slowing down of the macroscopic relaxation time, τ, in ICA when approaching TC from the paraelectric side, indicating an order-disorder type of ferroelectrics.

Proton dynamics at low and high temperatures in a novel ferroelectric diammonium hypodiphosphate (NH4)2H2P2O6 (ADhP) as studied by 1H spin-lattice relaxation time and second moment of NMR line

Proton spin-lattice relaxation times T1 at 24.7 MHz and 15 MHz and second moment of NMR line have been applied to study molecular dynamics of a novel ferroelectric (NH4)2H2P2O6 (T(c)=178 K) in the temperature range 10-290 K. Low-temperature T1 behaviour below Tc is interpreted in terms of Haupt's theory and Schrödinger correlation time of tunnelling jumps. A shallow T1 minimum observed around 39 K is attributed to the C3 classical motion of "intra" proton-proton vectors of NH3 (ammonium groups NH4(+) may perform stochastic jumps about any of the four C3 symmetry axes). The tunnelling splitting of the ground state vibrational level, (νT)v0, of the same frequency for both ammonium groups was estimated as high as 900 MHz ((ħωT)v0=3.7 μeV). This tunnelling splitting exists only in the ferroelectric phase. Magnetisation recovery is found to be non-exponential in the temperature regime 63-48 K. The temperature of 63 K is the discovered T(tun) above which the probability of stochastic tunnelling jumps equals zero. The T1 relaxation time is temperature independent below 25 K, which is related to a constant value of the correlation time characterising tunnelling jumps according to Schrödinger. The T1 minima observed in the paraelectric phase (204 K at 15 MHz and 213 K at 24.7 MHz) as well as second moment reduction at about 130K are attributed to isotropic motion of all protons.

Complex molecular dynamics of (CH3NH3)5Bi2Br11 (MAPBB) protons from NMR relaxation and second moment of NMR spectrum

Molecular dynamics of a polycrystalline sample of (CH(3)NH(3))(5)Bi(2)Br(11) (MAPBB) is studied on the basis of the proton T(1) (55.2 MHz) relaxation time and the proton second moment of NMR line. The T(1) (55.2 MHz) was measured for temperatures from 20K to 330 K, while the second moment M(2) for those from 40K to 330 K. The proton spin pairs of the methyl and ammonium groups perform a complex stochastic motion being a resultant of four components characterised by the correlation times τ(3)(T), τ(3)(H), τ(2), and τ(iso), referring to the tunnelling and over the barrier jumps in a triple potential, jumps between two equilibrium sites and isotropic rotation. The theoretical expressions for the spectral densities in the cases of the complex motion considered were derived. For τ(3)(H), τ(2), and τ(iso) the Arrhenius temperature dependence was assumed, while for τ(3)(T)-the Schrödinger one. The correlation times τ(3)(H) for CH(3) and NH(3) groups differ, which indicates the uncorrelated motion of these groups. The stochastic tunnelling jumps are not present above the temperature T(tun) at which the thermal energy is higher than the activation energy of jumps over the barrier attributed to the hindered rotation of the CH(3) and NH(3) groups. The T(tun) temperature is 54.6 K for NH(3) group and 46.5 K for CH(3) group in MAPBB crystal. The tunnelling jumps of the methyl and ammonium protons are responsible for the flattening of T(1) temperature dependence at low temperatures. The isotropic tumbling is detectable only from the M(2) temperature dependence. The isotropic tumbling reduces the second moment to 4 G(2) which is the value of the intermolecular part of the second moment. The motion characterised by the correlation time τ(2) is well detectable from both T(1) and M(2) temperature dependences. This motion causes the appearance of T(1) minimum at 130 K and reduction of the second moment to the 7.7 G(2) value. The small tunnelling splitting ω(T) of the same value for the methyl and ammonium groups was estimated as 226 MHz from the Haupt equation or 80 MHz from the corrected by us Haupt equation. These frequencies correspond to 0.93 μeV and 0.34 μeV tunnel splitting energy.

Complex methyl groups dynamics in [(CH3)4P]3Sb2Br9 (PBA) from low to high temperatures by proton spin-lattice relaxation and narrowing of proton NMR spectrum

Molecular dynamics of a polycrystalline sample of [(CH(3))(4)P](3)Sb(2)Br(9) (PBA) has been studied on the basis of the T(1) (24.7 MHz) relaxation time measurement, the proton second moment of NMR and the earlier published T(1) (90 MHz) relaxation times. The study was performed in a wide range of temperatures (30-337 K). The tunnel splitting omega(T) of the methyl groups was estimated as of low frequency (from kHz to few MHz). The proton spin pairs of the methyl group are known to perform a complex internal motion being a resultant of four components. Three of them involve mass transportation over and through the potential barrier and are characterized by the correlation times tau(3) and tau(T)of the jumps over the barrier and tunnel jumps in the threefold potential of the methyl group and tau(iso) the correlation time of isotropic rotation of the whole TMP cation. For tau(3) and tau(iso) the Arrhenius temperature dependence was assumed, while for tau(T)--the Schrödinger one. The fourth motion causes fluctuations of the tunnel splitting frequency, omega(T), and it is related to the lifetime of the methyl spin at the energy level. The correlation function for this fourth motion (tau(omega) correlation time) has been proposed by Müller-Warmuth et al. In this paper a formula for the correlation function and spectral density of the complex motion made of the above-mentioned four components was derived and used in interpretation of the T(1) relaxation time. The second moment of proton NMR line at temperatures below 50K is four times lower than its value for the rigid structure. The three components of the internal motion characterized by tau(T), tau(H), and tau(iso) were proved to reduce the second moment of the NMR line. The tunnel jumps of the methyl group reduce M(2) at almost 0K, the classical jumps over the barrier reduce M(2) in the vicinity of 50K, while the isotropic motion near 150K. Results of the study on the dynamics of CH(3) groups of TMP cation based on the second moment measurements were correlated with those based on T(1) time measurements.

Dielectric critical slowing down in pentakis(imidazolium) undecabromodibismuthate(III): (C(3)N(2)H(5))(5)Bi(2)Br(11)

Low frequency dielectric dispersion studies have been carried out for the ferroelectric pentakis(imidazolium) undecabromodibismuthate(III)- (C(3)N(2)H(5))(5)Bi(2)Br(11)-single crystal in the paraelectric phase in the radio-frequency region (100 Hz-1 MHz). The dielectric dispersion, observed for an electric field along the a-axis (P 2(1)/n space group), is characterized by a polydispersive nature close to the Curie temperature (T(c) = 155 K). The dielectric dispersion findings were analyzed accurately with the Cole-Cole formula. In the vicinity of the Curie temperature the process of the dielectric critical slowing down is clearly observed. Such a dynamic dielectric response is characteristic of ferroelectric crystals classified as 'order-disorder' type.

The influence of hydrostatic pressure on the ferroelectric phase transition in (C(3)N(2)H(5))(5)Bi(2)Cl(11)

Single crystals of pentakis (imidazolium) undecachlorodibismuthate (III); (C(3)N(2)H(5))(5)Bi(2)Cl(11), have been studied by the dielectric method at ambient and hydrostatic pressures. At ambient pressure the crystals undergo a ferroelectric phase transition of order-disorder type at 166 K. The character of the dielectric permittivity anomalies is typical of the ferroelectric phase transition close to second-order type. The magnitude of the Curie constants of paraelectric (C(+)) and ferroelectric (C(-)) phases is of the order of 10(3) and the (C(+))/(C(-)) ratio is near 2. At elevated pressures the maximum dielectric permittivity corresponding to the (T(c)) value gradually decreases with increasing pressure. In addition, above about 15 MPa the dielectric permittivity shows a step-like behaviour as well as a temperature hysteresis, which is typical of first-order phase transitions. The Curie-Weiss constant (C(+)) rapidly increases with increasing pressure, reaching a value of the order of 10(5) at about 181 MPa. The pressure-induced change in the phase transition type is continuous and reversible. The phase boundary has been found to decrease nonlinearly with increasing pressure with the initial slope of dT(c)/dp = -3.9 × 10(-2) K MPa(-1). The results have been discussed within the phenomenological model of phase transitions.

Dielectric critical slowing down in ferroelectric (C(3)N(2)H(5))(5)Sb(2)Br(11)

Dielectric dispersion studies have been carried out on the pentakis(imidazolium) undecabromodiantimonate(III), (C(3)N(2)H(5))(5)Sb(2)Br(11), single crystal in the audio-frequency region. It is found that low-frequency dielectric dispersion, observed for the field along the a-axis of the monoclinic symmetry (P 2(1)/n), reveals a polydispersive nature near the paraelectric-ferroelectric phase transition temperature (T(c) = 145 K). The dielectric dispersion results can be fitted with the Cole-Cole formula. Unexpectedly, the mean relaxation frequency obeys the Vogel-Fulcher law with freezing temperature of 143 K. Near the ferroelectric phase transition temperature, the process of dielectric critical slowing down was observed. Such a dynamic dielectric response is characteristic of ferroelectrics with an 'order-disorder' transition mechanism.