A TEST OF THE GLACIAL REFUGIUM HYPOTHESIS USING PATTERNS OF MITOCHONDRIAL AND NUCLEAR DNA SEQUENCE VARIATION IN ROCK PTARMIGAN (LAGOPUS MUTUS)

The glacial refugium hypothesis (GRH) proposes that glaciers promoted differentiation and generation of intraspecific diversity by isolating populations in ice-free refugia. We tested three predictions of this hypothesis for the evolutionary divergence of rock ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) during the Wisconsin glaciation of the late Pleistocene. To do this, we examined subspecies distributions, population genetic structure, and phylogenetic relationships in 26 populations across North America and the Bering Sea region. First, we analyzed sequence variation in the mitochondrial control region, in a nuclear intron (Gapdh), and in an internal transcribed spacer (ITS1). Control region sequences of 154 rock ptarmigan revealed strong population and phylogeographic structure. Variation in intron sequences of 114 rock ptarmigan also revealed significant population structure compatible with results for the control region. Rock ptarmigan were invariant for ITS1. Second, we show that five known Nearctic refugia and an Icelandic refugium are concordant with the current distribution of morphologically distinct subspecies; five of these six refugia are geographically concordant with the distribution of closely related control region haplotypes. Third, our estimates of the time since phylogenetic lineages diverged predated the last glacial maximum for all but two lineages. In addition, all lines of evidence suggest that two unknown refugia in the Bering Sea region supported rock ptarmigan during the Wisconsin glaciation. Overall, our results are most consistent with the hypothesis that isolated populations of rock ptarmigan diverged in multiple refugia during the Wisconsin and that geographic variation reflects patterns of recolonization of the Nearctic after the ice receded. The GRH may therefore offer the most plausible explanation for similar biogeographic patterns in a variety of Nearctic vertebrates.

Sperm traits in Chinook salmon depend upon activation medium: implications for studies of sperm competition in fishes

Sperm traits of externally fertilizing fish species are typically measured in fresh (or salt) water, even though the spawning environment of their ova contains ovarian fluid. In this study, we measured sperm traits of Chinook salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum in Artedi, 1792)) in both fresh water and dilute ovarian fluid at 10 and 20 s postactivation, using a computer-assisted sperm analysis system. Spermatozoa swam faster, and had both higher percent motility and a straighter path trajectory for a longer period of forward motility when activated in ovarian fluid compared with activation in fresh water. Comparing sperm activity of 10 males in water versus ovarian fluid, we found a weak but significant correlation for sperm swimming speed at 10 s postactivation (r = 0.34, p = 0.01), but not for any other sperm traits measured. Most important, across males, mean sperm swimming speed in water accounted for <10% of the observed variation in mean sperm swimming speed in ovarian fluid. Thus, we argue that sperm traits measured in fresh water are not particularly relevant to those same traits during normal spawning in this species. We suggest that sperm performance measured in fresh water should be used with caution when comparing the potential for individual males to fertilize ova, especially in studies of sperm competition in externally fertilizing species.

Reduced sperm performance in backcross hybrids between species pairs of whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis)

Previous work has demonstrated that genomic incompatibilities work together with ecologically divergent selection to promote and maintain reproductive isolation between incipient species (dwarf and normal) of lake whitefish ( Coregonus clupeaformis (Mitchill, 1818)). Whitefish spawn in groups with external fertilization, which creates conditions for strong sperm competition. In this study, we asked whether reduced sperm performance in hybrids from whitefish species-pair matings might contribute to postzygotic isolating mechanisms between these taxa. We examined two sperm traits, sperm swimming speed and flagellum length, in pure dwarf and normal whitefish and in their F1 and backcross hybrids. We observed significantly reduced sperm swimming speed in backcross but not in F1 hybrids. Sperm flagellum length was not significantly correlated with sperm swimming speed. These results demonstrate that F1 hybrids formed in nature should be capable of the same fertilization success as the parental species during sperm competition, everything else being equal. However, reduced sperm performance in the backcross generation is consistent with other evidence suggesting that genomic incompatibilities create a range of negative fitness effects in post-F1 whitefish hybrids and provides evidence for an additional postzygotic isolation mechanism involved in the incipient speciation of sympatric dwarf and normal whitefish.

Female-mediated causes and consequences of status change in a social fish

In highly social species, dominant individuals often monopolize reproduction, resulting in reproductive investment that is status dependent. Yet, for subordinates, who typically invest less in reproduction, social status can change and opportunities to ascend to dominant social positions are presented suddenly, requiring abrupt changes in behaviour and physiology. In this study, we examined male reproductive anatomy, physiology and behaviour following experimental manipulations of social status in the cooperatively breeding cichlid fish, Neolamprologus pulcher. This unusual fish species lives in permanent social groups composed of a dominant breeding pair and 1-20 subordinates that form a linear social dominance hierarchy. By removing male breeders, we created 18 breeding vacancies and thus provided an opportunity for subordinate males to ascend in status. Dominant females play an important role in regulating status change, as males successfully ascended to breeder status only when they were slightly larger than the female breeder in their social group. Ascending males rapidly assumed behavioural dominance, demonstrated elevated gonadal investment and androgen concentrations compared with males remaining socially subordinate. Interestingly, to increase gonadal investment ascending males appeared to temporarily restrain somatic growth. These results highlight the complex interactions between social status, reproductive physiology and group dynamics, and underscore a convergent pattern of reproductive investment among highly social, cooperative species.

Reproductive-tactic-specific variation in sperm swimming speeds in a shell-brooding cichlid

Theory predicts that males experiencing elevated levels of sperm competition will invest more in gonads and produce faster-swimming sperm. Although there is ample evidence in support of the first prediction, few studies have examined sperm swimming speed in relation to sperm competition. In this study, we tested these predictions from sperm competition theory by examining sperm characteristics in Telmatochromis vittatus, a small shell-brooding cichlid fish endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Males exhibit four different reproductive tactics: pirate, territorial, satellite, and sneaker. Pirate males temporarily displace all other competing males from a shell nest, whereas sneaker males always release sperm in the presence of territorial and satellite males. Due to the fact that sneakers spawn in the presence of another male, sneakers face the highest levels of sperm competition and pirates the lowest, whereas satellites and territorials experience intermediate levels. In accordance with predictions, sperm from sneakers swam faster than sperm from males adopting the other reproductive tactics, whereas sperm from pirates was slowest. Interestingly, we were unable to detect any variation in sperm tail length among these reproductive tactics. Thus, sperm competition appears to have influenced sperm energetics in this species without having any influence on sperm size.

Concordant evolution of plumage colour, feather microstructure and a melanocortin receptor gene between mainland and island populations of a fairy-wren

Studies of the patterns of diversification of birds on islands have contributed a great deal to the development of evolutionary theory. In white-winged fairy-wrens, Malurus leucopterus, mainland males develop a striking blue nuptial plumage whereas those on nearby islands develop black nuptial plumage. We explore the proximate basis for this divergence by combining microstructural feather analysis with an investigation of genetic variation at the melanocortin-1 receptor locus (MC1R). Fourier analysis revealed that the medullary keratin matrix (spongy layer) of the feather barbs of blue males was ordered at the appropriate nanoscale to produce the observed blue colour by coherent light scattering. Surprisingly, the feather barbs of black males also contained a spongy layer that could produce a similar blue colour. However, black males had more melanin in their barbs than blue males, and this melanin may effectively mask any structural colour produced by the spongy layer. Moreover, the presence of this spongy layer suggests that black island males evolved from a blue-plumaged ancestor. We also document concordant patterns of variation at the MC1R locus, as five amino acid substitutions were perfectly associated with the divergent blue and black plumage phenotypes. Thus, with the possible involvement of a melanocortin receptor locus, increased melanin density may mask the blue-producing microstructure in black island males, resulting in the divergence of plumage coloration between mainland and island white-winged fairy-wrens. Such mechanisms may also be responsible for plumage colour diversity across broader geographical and evolutionary scales.

Facial attractiveness signals different aspects of "quality" in women and men

We explored the relationships between facial attractiveness and several variables thought to be related to genotypic and phenotypic quality in humans (namely fluctuating asymmetry (FA), body mass index (BMI), health, age). To help resolve some controversy around previous studies, we used consistent measurement and statistical methods and relatively large samples of both female (n=94) and male (n=95) subjects (to be evaluated and measured), and female (n=226) and male (n=153) viewers (to rate attractiveness). We measured the asymmetry of 22 traits from three trait families (eight facial, nine body and five fingerprint traits) and constructed composite asymmetry indices of traits showing significant repeatability. Facial attractiveness was negatively related to an overall asymmetry index in both females and males, with almost identical slopes. Female facial attractiveness was best predicted by BMI and past health problems, whereas male facial attractiveness was best predicted by the socioeconomic status (SES) of their rearing environment. Composite FA indices accounted for a small (<4%) but usually significant percentage of the variation in facial attractiveness in both sexes, when factors related to asymmetry were controlled statistically. We conclude that, although facial attractiveness is negatively related to developmental instability (as measured by asymmetry), attractiveness also signals different aspects of "quality" in the two sexes, independent of FA.

Glacial vicariance and historical biogeography of rock ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) in the Bering region

In this paper, we address alternative hypotheses for the evolution of subspecies of rock ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) endemic to the Aleutian Archipelago. To do this we examined patterns of genetic differentiation among populations of rock ptarmigan in the Aleutian Islands and parts of both Alaska and Siberia. Variation in mitochondrial control region sequences of 105 rock ptarmigan from 10 subspecies within the Bering region revealed three major phylogenetic lineages, two of which are endemic to the Aleutian Islands. Accordingly, haplotype and nucleotide diversities of rock ptarmigan within the archipelago are much higher than within mainland Alaska or Siberia. For Aleutian rock ptarmigan, analyses of molecular variance indicated significant genetic structuring and low estimates of gene flow among populations, despite small interisland distances within the archipelago. However, isolation by distance did not describe the pattern of gene flow or differentiation at this scale. Our estimates of divergence times of lineages suggest that Aleutian rock ptarmigan became isolated prior to the most recent Pleistocene glaciation event (late Wisconsin Stade) and that current patterns of genetic variation reflect the postglacial redistribution of divergent lineages and subsequent limited gene flow. In addition, genetic divergence among lineages was concordant with the distribution of plumage types among subspecies. The patterns of genetic variation described here for rock ptarmigan provide evidence for the role of glacial vicariance in contributing to genetic diversity within this and other Bering region species.

Parent-offspring recognition in thick-billed murres (Aves: Alcidae)

Using field experiments, we investigated the development of parent-offspring recognition in the thick-billed murre, Uria lomvia. Cross-fostering experiments (N=73) showed that the likelihood of parents accepting a foreign chick decreased with chick age. Simultaneous-choice playback experiments demonstrated that chicks discriminate between the calls of their parents and both strange and familiar adult conspecifics from as early as 3 days old. In presentation experiments with chicks of fledging age (>/=14 days), adults responded more strongly to the calls of their own chicks than to other familiar chicks from the same breeding ledge. Results are consistent with those of earlier studies of parent-offspring recognition in the congeneric and ecologically similar common murre, U. aalge, which were among the first to suggest that parent birds and their chicks can identify each other's calls. Copyright 1998 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Copyright 1998 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

How robins find worms

An understanding of diet selection in animals requires knowledge of not only what animals eat in relation to what is available, but also how they perceive the foods available to them. Birds use auditory, visual, olfactory and possibly vibrotactile cues to find prey, but vision is the predominant mode of prey detection. In a series of controlled experiments in an aviary, four American robins, Turdus migratoriusfound buried mealworms in the absence of visual, olfactory and vibrotactile cues, suggesting that they could use auditory cues to locate the prey. They also had significantly reduced foraging success when auditory cues were obscured by white noise. These results conflict with the only other experimental study of foraging in American robins, which concluded that they foraged using visual clues alone.

Sperm size and sperm competition in birds

In a sample of 20 species of North American passerine birds we found no relation between sperm size and mating system like that previously reported in mammals (Gomendio & Roldan (Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 243, 181 (1991)). Instead, we found a positive correlation between sperm length and the length of female sperm storage tubules (SSTS) and a negative correlation between sperm length and the number of SSTS. Both of these correlations suggest that the more than fivefold variation in sperm size we found among species can be explained by sperm competition for access to storage sites (SSTS) in females. As longer sperm appear to be able to swim faster, selection should favour long sperm when SSTS are in short supply; sperm long enough to fill an SST might also prevent access to SSTS by the sperm of other males. Conversely, selection should favour shorter sperm when there is an advantage to sperm layering within an SST promoting a last-male mating advantage. Although we conclude that sperm competition influences sperm size in birds, little is known about the interactions between sperm and SSTS. It seems clear, however, that detailed study of this interaction will provide a new dimension to the study of avian mating systems.