Medicolegal aspects of documentation and the electronic health record

INTRODUCTION

The busiest times in the hospital are often met by the greatest challenges in complete and comprehensive documentation of the patient care event. The near complete transition to the Electronic Health Record (EHR) was to be the solution to a host of provider documentation concerns. It is clear the EHR provides reliability, reproducibility, integration, evidence based decision-making, multidisciplinary contribution across the entire healthcare spectrum.

METHODS

The use of a consensus of expert opinion supplemented by focused literature review allows a balanced evidence based presentation of data.

RESULTS

Documentation is not a perfect tool however, as issues with efficiency, reliability, use of shortcut maneuvers and potential for increased medico-legal risk have been raised. The solution is attention to documentation detail, and creation of systems that facilitate excellence. The focus on electronic documentation systems should include continual evaluation, ongoing improvement, involvement of a multidisciplinary patient care team and vendor receptiveness to in EHR development and operations.

CONCLUSION

The most effective use of the EHR as a risk management tool requires documentation knowledge, targeted analysis, product improvement and co-development of clinical-commercial resource.

Emergency medicine provider efficiency: the learning curve, equilibration and point of diminishing returns

OBJECTIVE

This study described the spectrum of emergency department (ED) physician performance correlating annual workload, experience and facility issues.

METHODS

Retrospective review reported physician hours worked comparing productivity measures--patients per hour (PPH) or relative value unit (RVU) per hour, as 'best fit' trend line and facility volume subgroups by analysis of variance.

RESULTS

912 physicians evaluated 2,407,833 patients in 61 ED. Staff productivity was 1.72±0.44 PPH (1.2±0.30-2.1±0.32 PPH) and 4.43±1.21 RVU/h (2.9±0.80-5.4±0.82 RVU/h). There was less variation with facility size 2.58±0.36 (2.41±0.22-2.72±0.37 RVU/visit) from smaller to larger (p<0.001). Maximal efficiency occurs at 5.0 RVU/h generated at 1550 annual hours (130 monthly) compared with 1800 h full-time equivalent (FTE) physicians (R(2)=0.084). Productivity begins at 4.0 RVU/h for casual (<250 h/year), 4.4 RVU/h for part time (<500 h), achieving equilibrium (5.0 RVU/h) for three-quarters to full time (1250-1800 h) with a decline in full-time providers (2000-2500 h/year). Efficiency was less in smaller ED less than 15,000 (1.22±0.30 PPH, 2.95±0.80 RVU/h) compared with larger greater than 45,000 (2.07±0.32 PPH, 5.43±0.82 RVU/h; p<0.001). The RVU/visit generated were less varied (2.41±0.22) in smaller versus (2.64±0.38) larger facilities with a 2.8 RVU/h equilibration point (p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Maximal productivity is reached at 86% (1550 h) annual workload and efficiency declines at conventional FTE (≈ 1800 h). A distinct 'learning curve' was found in newer, casual providers and smaller facilities.

Initial cardiac rhythm correlated to emergency department survival

BACKGROUND

This study attempted to correlate the initial cardiac rhythm and survival from prehospital cardiac arrest, as a secondary end-point.

METHODS

Prospective, randomized, double-blinded clinical intervention trial where bicarbonate was administered to 874 prehospital cardiopulmonary arrest patients in prehospital urban, suburban, and rural emergency medical service environments.

RESULTS

This group's manifested an overall survival rate of 13.9% (110 of 793) of prehospital cardiac arrest patients. The most common presenting arrhythmia was ventricular fibrillation (VF) (45.0%), asystole (ASY) (34.4%), and pulseless electrical activity (PEA) (15.7%). Less commonly found were normal sinus rhythm (NSR) (1.8%), other (1.8%), ventricular tachycardia (VT) (0.6%), and atrioventricular block (AVB) (0.5%) as prearrest rhythms. The best survival was noted in those with a presenting rhythm of AVB (57.1%), VT (33.3%), VF (15.7%), NSR (14.3%), PEA (11.2%), and ASY (11.1%) (p = 0.02). However, there was no correlation between the final cardiac rhythm and outcome, other than an obvious end-of-life rhythm.

CONCLUSION

The most common presenting arrhythmia was VF (45%), while survival is greatest in those presenting with AVB (57.1%).

Customer Satisfaction with Patient Care

STUDY OBJECTIVE

This was an attempt to present an analysis of the literature examining objective information concerning the subject of customer service, as it applies to the current medical practice. Hopefully this information will be synthesized to generate a cogent approach to correlate customer service with quality.

METHODS

Articles were obtained by an English language search of MEDLINE from January 1976 to July 2005. This computerized search was supplemented with literature from the author's personal collection of peer reviewed articles on customer service in a medical setting. This information was presented in a qualitative fashion.

RESULTS

There is a significant lack of objective data correlating customer service objectives, patient satisfaction, and quality of care. Patients present predominantly for the convenience of emergency department care. Specifics of satisfaction are directed to the timing, and amount of "caring." Demographic correlates including symptom presentation, practice style, location, and physician issues directly impact on satisfaction. It is most helpful to develop a productive plan for the "difficult patient" emphasizing communication and empathy.

CONCLUSION

The current emergency medicine customer service dilemmas are a complex interaction of both patient and physician factors specifically targeting both efficiency and patient satisfaction. Awareness of these issues can help to maximize efficiency, minimize subsequent medicolegal risk and improve patient care.

Sodium bicarbonate improves outcome in prolonged prehospital cardiac arrest

OBJECTIVE

This study evaluates the effect of early administration of an empirical (1 mEq/kg) sodium bicarbonate dose on survival from prehospital cardiac arrest within brief (<5 minutes), moderate (5-15 minutes), and prolonged (>15 minutes) down time.

METHODS

Prospective randomized, double-blinded clinical intervention trial that enrolled 874 prehospital cardiopulmonary arrest patients managed by prehospital, suburban, and rural regional emergency medical services. Over a 4-year period, the randomized experimental group received an empirical dose of bicarbonate (1 mEq/kg) after standard advanced cardiac life support interventions. Outcome was measured as survival to emergency department, as this was a prehospital study.

RESULTS

The overall survival rate was 13.9% (110/792) for prehospital arrest patients. There was no difference in the amount of sodium bicarbonate administered to nonsurvivors (0.859 +/- 0.284 mEq/kg) and survivors (0.8683 +/- 0.284 mEq/kg) (P = .199). Overall, there was no difference in survival in those who received bicarbonate (7.4% [58/420]), compared with those who received placebo (6.7% [52/372]) (P = .88; risk ratio, 1.0236; 0.142-0.1387). There was, however, a trend toward improved outcome with bicarbonate in prolonged (>15 minute) arrest with a 2-fold increase in survival (32.8% vs 15.4%; P = .007).

CONCLUSION

The empirical early administration of sodium bicarbonate (1 mEq/kg) has no effect on the overall outcome in prehospital cardiac arrest. However, a trend toward improvement in prolonged (>15 minutes) arrest outcome was noted.

Survival from prehospital cardiac arrest is critically dependent upon response time

STUDY OBJECTIVE

This study correlated the delay in initiation of bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ByCPR), basic (BLS) or advanced cardiac (ACLS) life support, and transport time (TT) to survival from prehospital cardiac arrest. This was a secondary endpoint in a study primarily evaluating the effect of bicarbonate on survival.

DESIGN

Prospective multicenter trial.

SETTING

Patients treated by urban, suburban, and rural emergency medical services (EMS) services.

PATIENTS

Eight hundred and seventy-four prehospital cardiac arrest patients.

INTERVENTIONS

This group underwent conventional ACLS intervention followed by empiric early administration of sodium bicarbonate noting resuscitation times. Survival was measured as the presence of vital signs on emergency department (ED) arrival. Data analysis utilized Student's t-test and logistic regression (p<0.05).

RESULTS

Survival was improved with decreased time to BLS (5.52 min versus 6.81 min, p=0.047) and ACLS (7.29 min versus 9.49 min, p=0.002) intervention, as well as difference in time to return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC). The upper limit time interval after which no patient survived was 30 min for ACLS time, and 90 min for transport time. There was no overall difference in survival except at longer arrest times when considering the primary study intervention bicarbonate administration.

CONCLUSION

Delay to the initiation of BLS and ACLS intervention influenced outcome from prehospital cardiac arrest negatively. There were no survivors after prolonged delay in initiation of ACLS of 30 min or greater or total resuscitation and transport time of 90 min. This result was not influenced by giving bicarbonate, the primary study intervention, except at longer arrest times.

Customer satisfaction

PURPOSE

This paper seeks to present an analysis of the literature examining objective information concerning the subject of customer service, as it applies to the current medical practice. Hopefully, this information will be synthesized to generate a cogent approach to correlate customer service with quality.

DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH

Articles were obtained by an English language search of MEDLINE from January 1976 to July 2005. This computerized search was supplemented with literature from the author's personal collection of peer-reviewed articles on customer service in a medical setting. This information was presented in a qualitative fashion.

FINDINGS

There is a significant lack of objective data correlating customer service objectives, patient satisfaction and quality of care. Patients present predominantly for the convenience of emergency department care. Specifics of satisfaction are directed to the timing, and amount of "caring". Demographic correlates including symptom presentation, practice style, location and physician issues directly impact on satisfaction. It is most helpful to develop a productive plan for the "difficult patient", emphasizing communication and empathy. Profiling of the customer satisfaction experience is best accomplished by examining the specifics of satisfaction, nature of the ED patient, demographic profile, symptom presentation and physician interventions emphasizing communication--especially with the difficult patient.

ORIGINALITY/VALUE

The current emergency medicine customer service dilemmas are a complex interaction of both patient and physician factors specifically targeting both efficiency and patient satisfaction. Awareness of these issues particular to the emergency patient can help to maximize efficiency, minimize subsequent medicolegal risk and improve patient care if a tailored management plan is formulated.

The diagnosis of cardiac dysfunction in critically III trauma patients with blunt chest trauma and presumed myocardial contusion: the critical nature of end diastolic volume

BACKGROUND

To evaluate prospectively the effectiveness of monitoring end-diastolic volume (EDV) vs pulmonary artery occlusion pressure (PAO) as an estimate of cardiac preload in hemodynamically unstable critically ill 23 myocardial contusion patients with blunt chest trauma admitted to a university trauma center..

METHODS

Patients were resuscitated (ATLS guidelines) with intubation and volume replacement for altered consciousness, hypoxemia or hemodynamic instability. Volume resuscitation and pulmonary artery catheterization were started to measure PAO, EDV, and oxygen utilization parameters. Myocardial performance was determined in both static (0., 24., 48., 72. hours) and dynamic condition after 500cc fluid bolus.

RESULTS

A moderate injury severity (GCS 9, TS 11, ISS 34) with MVA mechanism (91%), an average ICU stay of 14 days and a 39% mortality were revealed. Correlation of PAO, EDV with CO, CI demonstrated that EDV is more reliable than PAO However, factoring heart rate into CO determination was more reliable than single preload estimates of EDV-PAO-HR, HR-EDV, and HR-PAO. EDV-PAO-HR were correlated more strongly with cardiac output from 24 to 96 hours. A higher AV02 decrease was associated with improved survival, and a nearly significant decrease in EDV. Dynamic comparison found no change in cardiac performance with a small volume challenge.

CONCLUSION

Simultaneous consideration of PAO, EDV, HR allowed the most accurate determination of cardiac output.

Abdominal pain in a child associated with dental amalgam ingestion

We present the case of a child with abdominal cramping found to have radiopaque matter in his gastrointestinal tract on plain radiography. The parents denied ingestion of a foreign substance but specific questioning revealed a visit for dental care the previous day. This may serve to illustrate the benefits of taking a careful goal-directed history as opposed to the often recommended open-ended approach.

Drug seeking behavior

CONCEPT

Drug seeking behavior (DSB) is often mixed in illicit drug diversion confounding legitimate attempts to control acute and chronic pain.

OBJECTIVE

To review the literature of acute and chronic pain control against the medical and legal context of DSB.

DESIGN

Retrospective literature review from National Library of Medical Computerized Data Base 1990--2004.

PATIENTS

Preference to human prospective on retrospective clinical trials.

RESULTS

Drug use and abuse have significant adverse consequences. Pain control is desirable and necessary with chronic pain syndromes more prone to DSB. This behavior can be accurately profiled and information used to assist recovery.

CONCLUSION

It is desirable to address DSB stressing acceptance and a multidisciplinary approach to recovery.

Witnessed arrest, but not delayed bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation improves prehospital cardiac arrest survival

INTRODUCTION

This study correlated the effect of witnessing a cardiac arrest and instituting bystander CPR (ByCPR), as a secondary end point in a study evaluating the effect of bicarbonate on survival.

METHODS

This prospective, randomised, double blinded clinical intervention trial enrolled 874 prehospital cardiopulmonary arrest patients encountered in a prehospital urban, suburban, and rural regional emergency medical service (EMS) area. This group underwent conventional advanced cardiac life support intervention followed by empiric early administration of sodium bicarbonate (1 mEq/l), monitoring conventional resuscitation parameters. Survival was measured as presence of vital signs on emergency department (ED) arrival. Data were analysed using chi(2) with Pearson correlation and odds ratio where appropriate.

RESULTS

The overall survival rate was 13.9% (110 of 792) of prehospital cardiac arrest patients. The mean (SD) time until provision of bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ByCPR) by laymen was 2.08 (2.77) minutes, and basic life support (BLS) by emergency medical technicians was 6.62 (5.73) minutes. There was improved survival noted with witnessed cardiac arrest-a 2.2-fold increase in survival, 18.9% (76 of 402) versus 8.6% (27 of 315) compared with unwitnessed arrests (p<0.001) with a decreased risk ratio of mortality of 0.4534 (95% CI, 0.0857 to 0.1891). The presence of ByCPR occurred in 32% (228 of 716) of patients, but interestingly did not correlate with survival. The survival rate was 18.2% (33 of 181) if ByCPR was performed within two minutes and 12.8% (6 of 47), if performed >two minutes (p = 0.3752).

CONCLUSIONS

Survival after prehospital cardiac arrest is more likely when witnessed, but not necessarily when ByCPR was performed by laymen.

Does serum prolactin indicate the presence of seizure in the emergency department patient?

STUDY OBJECTIVE

We sought to evaluate whether there was a correlation between elevated serum prolactin in patients presenting with the question of seizure.

METHODS

A Convenience sample of 200 consecutive patients were chosen who had a serum prolactin measurement in the setting of seizure activity.

RESULTS

The prolactin level was within a range of 3.90-294.00 mg/dl with an upper limit of normal being 29.9 mg/dl. Patients were ultimately diagnosed with seizure in 54.5% (109 of 200) with an abnormal prolactine in 31.0% (62 of 200). The sensitivity of this serum prolactin was 42%, the specificity was 82%, positive predictive value (PPV) of 74%, and negative predictive value (NPV) of 54%. There was an overall accuracy of 60% in the diagnosis of seizure, with a likelihood ratio of 2.4 (95% Confidence Interval [CI], 1.5-3.9).

CONCLUSION

The measurement of serum prolactin is helpful as a confirmatory test, but not as screening test in the emergency department setting.

The influence of urban, suburban, or rural locale on survival from refractory prehospital cardiac arrest

There are many variables that can have an effect on survival in cardiopulmonary arrest. This study examined the effect of urban, suburban, or rural location on the outcome of prehospital cardiac arrest as a secondary end point in a study evaluating the effect of bicarbonate on survival. The proportion of survivors within a type of EMS provider system as well as response times were compared. This prospective, randomized, double-blind clinical intervention trial enrolled 874 prehospital cardiopulmonary arrest patients encountered by prehospital urban, suburban, and rural regional EMS area. Population density (patients per square mile) calculation allowed classification into urban (>2000/mi2), suburban (>400/mi2), and rural (0-399/mi2) systems. This group underwent standard advanced cardiac life support (ACLS) intervention with or without early empiric administration of bicarbonate in a 1-mEq/kg dose. A group of demographic, diagnostic, and therapeutic variables were analyzed for their effect on survival. Times were measured from collapse until onset of medical intervention and survival measured as the presence of ED vital signs on arrival. Data analysis used chi-squared with Pearson correlation for survivorship and Student t test comparisons for response times. The overall survival rate was approximately 13.9% (110 of 793), ranging from 9% rural, 14% for suburban, and 23% for urban sites for 372 patients (P=.007). Survival differences were associated with classification of arrest locale in this sample-best for urban, suburban, followed by rural sites. There was no difference in time to bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation, but medical response time (basic life support) was decreased for suburban or urban sites, and intervention (ACLS) and transport times were decreased for suburban sites alone. Although response times were differentiated by location, they were not necessarily predictive of survival. Factors other than response time such as patient population or resuscitation skill could influence survival from cardiac arrest occurring in diverse prehospital service areas.

Prehospital cardiac arrest and the adverse effect of male gender, but not age, on outcome

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the incidence and outcome of prehospital cardiac arrest as it correlated to gender and age as a secondary end point in an interventional clinical trial.

METHODS

This prospective, randomized, double-blinded clinical intervention trial enrolled 874 prehospital cardiopulmonary arrest patients encountered by prehospital urban, suburban, and rural regional emergency medical service (EMS) areas. This trial evaluated outcome and profiled demographic predictors of cardiac arrest patients refractory to defibrillation with intravenous access who underwent standard advanced cardiac life support (ACLS) intervention and empiric early administration of bicarbonate. Survival was measured to the emergency department (ED), and data analysis used chi-square with Pearson correlation.

RESULTS

The overall survival rate was 14.2%. There was no age correlate to survival, with an average age of 67.4 for both groups. Male patients had a 2.4-fold increased incidence (70.7 vs. 29.3%, p = 0.001) of arrest, which was associated with a 60% increase in mortality (19.6% vs. 11.8, p = 0.004) compared with women. The risk of unfavorable outcome was increased for men (OR 1.826, 95% CI 1.182-2.821; RR 1.097, 95% CI 1.025-1.180) on univariate analysis. There appeared to be no intergroup differences found with other historical variables, such as the presence of myocardial infarction (MI), hypertension (HTN), diabetes mellitus (DM), congestive heart failure (CHF), and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which were analyzed. However, HTN was found more commonly (2.2 times) in men (69.1 vs. 30.9%) than in women but did not correlate with survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Male gender, but not age, is associated with both an increased incidence and a worsened outcome in prehospital cardiac arrest.

Prehospital cardiac arrest outcome is adversely associated with antiarrythmic agent use, but not associated with presenting complaint or medical history

STUDY OBJECTIVE

This study associated survival from prehospital cardiac arrest to patient historical variables including presenting complaint, medications used, and medical history as a secondary end point in a trial evaluating the effect of bicarbonate administration. This raises issues concerning extensive prehospital historical assessment that may potentially delay care and transport.

METHODS

This prospective multicentre trial enrolled 874 prehospital cardiac arrest patients encountered by urban, suburban, and rural emergency medical services. This group underwent conventional ACLS intervention followed by empiric early administration of sodium bicarbonate (1mEq/l). Survival was measured as the presence of vital signs on emergency department arrival. Data analysis used Student's t test, Fisher's exact test, chi2 with Pearson correlation, and logistic regression (p<0.05). Secondary end points were analysed including an association with common historical variables such as medical history, presenting complaint, or drugs used.

RESULTS

The overall survival rate was 13.9% (110 of 793) of prehospital arrest patients. There was no correlation between historical factors, such as chief complaint or history of present illness (p = 0.277), medical history (p = 0.425), presence of specific disease conditions (p = 0.1125-0.956), or overall drug use (p = 0.002-0.9848). However, there was an adverse association between specific antiarrhythmic use (p = 0.003) and outcome.

CONCLUSION

There is little relation of patient historical factors on the outcome from prehospital cardiac arrest raising issues of efficiency with history taking in prehospital care and transport.

Medical malpractice: managing the risk

STUDY OBJECTIVE

This is an attempt to present an analysis of the literature examining objective information concerning the likelihood of medicolegal errors as it applies to current medical practice. Hopefully this information will be synthesized to generate a cogent approach to manage risk in emergency medicine.

METHODS

Articles were obtained by an English language search of MEDLINE from January 1976 to July 2003. This computerized search was supplemented with literature from the author's personal medicolegal collection of peer review articles. This information was presented in a qualitative fashion.

RESULTS

There was a steady increase in both the incidence and the recovery amount of verdicts involving general malpractice litigation. There are clearly high-risk emergency medicine categories responsible for most malpractice events, involving such commonly encountered conditions such as chest pain, abdominal pain, pediatric fever, central nervous system (CNS) bleeding, and abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA). Interestingly, there is a second peak of more minor emergencies, specifically wounds with neglected foreign bodies and missed fractures. Clearly, the largest dollar amount recovery still involves chest pain with subsequent missed transmural myocardial infarction (MI). Interestingly, there does not appear to be a strong correlation between adverse events, outcome and medicolegal risk. Likewise, there does not appear to be a strong correlation between socioeconomic status and a propensity to sue, but there were some defined links with physician profiles involving past malpractice history, as well as prior adverse relationships or communication skills to subsequent claims. Interestingly, a significant association appears to be advertising placed by local law offices seeking to provide services. Lastly in the emergency medical services (EMS) realm, the single strongest correlate to malpractice was the likelihood of an ambulance accident and not related to care delivered itself.

CONCLUSION

The current emergency medicine medicolegal dilemmas are a complex interaction of both patient and physician factors specifically targeting several disease categories and damage claims. Awareness of these issues can help to minimize subsequent medicolegal risk and improve patient care.

Sodium bicarbonate in cardiac arrest: a reappraisal

The routine use of sodium bicarbonate in patients with cardiac arrest has been discouraged, with the benefit of outcome evaluation. Current recommendations include an elaborate stratification of circumstances in which bicarbonate is to be used. The physiological and clinical aspects of bicarbonate administration during cardiopulmonary resuscitation in animal and human studies were reviewed. The onset of significant acidemia or alkalemia is associated with adverse system specific effects. The administration of bicarbonate may mitigate the adverse physiological effects of acidemia, improve response to exogenously administered vasopressor agents, or simply increase venous return due to an osmolar effect, resulting in increased coronary perfusion pressure. Likewise, bicarbonate may have adverse effects in each of these areas. The preponderance of evidence suggests that bicarbonate is not detrimental and may be helpful to outcome from cardiac arrest. An objective reappraisal of the empirical use of bicarbonate or other buffer agents in the appropriate "therapeutic window" for cardiac patients may be warranted.

Cardiac arrhythmia therapy

Cardiac dysfunction is often manifested as arrhythmia, with disruption of the normal periodicity and regularity of electromechanical activity. The therapy for arrhythmia begins with proper diagnosis, since many pharmacological interventions are themselves arrhythmogenic. Intervention for acute arrhythmia involves correction of underlying systemic conditions by ensuring adequate oxygenation, ventilation, acid-base homeostasis, electrolyte balance, and fluid status. Classification of antiarrhythmic agents assists in a structured treatment approach that utilizes different agents based on the etiology of the arrhythmia and the drug's mechanism of action. A deliberate treatment strategy guided by the morphological criteria of the arrhythmia modified by the rate and duration of complexes, noting symptoms and hemodynamic stability, is desirable.

Cardiac arrhythmia diagnosis

Cardiac dysfunction is often manifested as arrhythmia, with disruption of the normal periodicity and regularity of electromechanical activity. Cardiac arrhythmias, or abnormalities of cardiac rhythm, are associated with a diverse group of conditions, including congenital, metabolic, structural, physiological, and immunological, and infectious abnormalities. Dysarrhythmia may also be classified as primary because of endogenous electrical abnormalities, or secondary, because of exogenous influences such as ischemia or adrenergic stimuli. Clinical arrhythmia syndromes begin with a single asymptomatic abnormal complex that is benign, progressing to grouped, sustained complexes associated with worsened symptoms and outcome. Proper diagnosis of arrhythmia reflecting symptomology and outcome is essential in acute cardiac care.

Sodium bicarbonate may improve outcome in dogs with brief or prolonged cardiac arrest

OBJECTIVE

Despite the absence of outcome evaluation, the use of sodium bicarbonate in cardiac arrest has declined based on advanced cardiac life-support guidelines. The effects of bicarbonate therapy on outcome in a canine model of ventricular fibrillation cardiac arrest of brief (5-min) and prolonged (15-min) duration were examined.

DESIGN

Prospective, randomized, controlled trial.

SETTING

Experimental animal laboratory in a university medical center.

SUBJECTS

Thirty-two adult dogs, weighing 10 to 17 kg.

INTERVENTIONS

The animals were prepared with ketamine, nitrous oxide/oxygen, halothane, and pancuronium. Ventricular fibrillation was then electrically induced and maintained in arrest for 5 mins (n = 12) or 15 mins (n = 20). Canine advanced cardiac life-support protocols were instituted, including defibrillation, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), and the administration of epinephrine (0.1 mg/kg), atropine, and lidocaine. The bicarbonate group received 1 mmol/kg of sodium bicarbonate initially, and base deficit was corrected to -5 mmol/L with additional bicarbonate, whereas acidemia was untreated in the control group. Cardiopulmonary values were recorded at intervals between 5 mins and 24 hrs, and the neurologic deficit score was determined at 24 hrs after CPR.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

The treatment group received an additional 2 to 3 mmol/kg of bicarbonate in the early postresuscitation phase. Compared with controls, the bicarbonate group demonstrated equivalent (with brief arrest) or improved (with prolonged arrest) return of spontaneous circulation and survival to 24 hrs, with lessened neurologic deficit. The acidosis of arrest was decreased in the prolonged arrest group without hypercarbia. Improved coronary and systemic perfusion pressures were noted in the bicarbonate group with prolonged arrest, and the epinephrine requirement for return of spontaneous circulation was decreased.

CONCLUSIONS

The empirical administration of bicarbonate improves the survival rate and neurologic outcome in a canine model of cardiac arrest.

Successful therapy for cerebral phaeohyphomycosis due to Dactylaria gallopava in a liver transplant recipient

A 68-year-old liver transplant recipient who was being treated with FK 506 and immunosuppressive steroid therapy was admitted to our medical center because of a tonic-clonic seizure. Computed tomography of the head revealed multiple discrete cerebral abscesses, and culture of fluid drained intraoperatively yielded a dematiaceous fungus. The isolate was susceptible to amphotericin B and itraconazole but was resistant to flucytosine and fluconazole. The patient was successfully treated with a prolonged course of amphotericin B colloidal dispersion and itraconazole, as evidenced by both clinical and radiographic resolution of disease over a 2-year follow-up.

Acute adrenal insufficiency resulting from adrenal hemorrhage as indicated by post-operative hypotension

We examined the incidence, diagnosis and therapy of acute adrenal insufficiency, secondary to adrenal hemorrhage. This insufficiency resulted in temperature irregularities. hemodynamic instability, and a large volume resuscitation requirement post-operatively. The case illustrates that a high level of suspicion should be maintained in a clinical scenario that mimics sepsis or myocardial insufficiency in the intensive care unit.

Compliance with emergency department referral: the effect of computerized discharge instructions

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To examine the effect of computerized discharge instructions on emergency department patient referral recommendations.

DESIGN

Prospective, descriptive analysis and clinical trial.

SETTING

Emergency medicine residency-affiliated urban hospital with 568 beds and 29,000 annual visits.

TYPE OF PARTICIPANTS

One thousand ED patients discharged to an outpatient referral network during a six-week period.

INTERVENTION

Mandatory referral was provided in written or computerized (Logicare Corp, Eau Claire, Wisconsin) format for each 500-patient group. Demographic data and compliance, measured as appointment completion within 30 days, were analyzed using chi 2 with Yates' correction, Fisher's exact, and odds ratio comparisons (P < .05, 95% confidence interval).

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

The institution of computerized discharge instructions resulted in increased overall patient compliance from 26.2% to 36.2% (P < .0008) with odds ratio of 1.59 (1.2 to 2.1). Subset analysis showed increased compliance in patients who were more than 40 years old (32.5% to 61.1%), were female (28.7% to 39.7%) with a private physician (36.4% to 53.9%), established hospital relationship (26.1% to 38.9%), had nonurgent complaints (26.5% to 36.2%), were specifically diagnosed with strain or contusion (17.0% to 36.8%), or were referred to obstetrics/gynecology clinic (13.2% to 48.6%) (P < .001).

CONCLUSION

Computerized discharge instructions were associated with improved compliance with ED referral recommendations, based on historic and contemporary controls.

Pyogenic hepatic abscess

Pyogenic hepatic abscess is a rare condition associated with severe sequelae. The diagnosis may be obvious in patients with fever and leukocytosis who are clearly predisposed to this infectious complication. In patients without known risk factors, diagnosis and treatment are often delayed, usually until numerous health care resources have been consulted. The evaluation of occult hepatic abscess may be improved by a history directed at identifying predisposing conditions, by an appropriate physical examination and by the use of computed tomographic scanning. The standard treatment for pyogenic hepatic abscess is percutaneous or open drainage, accompanied by broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy.

Compliance with emergency department patient referral

This study evaluated the nature and efficacy of compliance with emergency department (ED) patient referral recommendations. This was a prospective, nonrandomized, descriptive analysis of all ED patients referred mandatorily to an established urban hospital follow-up network. Compliance was measured by analysis of hospital records determined as appointment completion. Patient demographics, urgency of complaint, hospital relationship (new versus established), diagnosis (International Classification of Diseases-9CM), specialty, and method of payment, defined as clinic or private referral, were determined. Comparisons between groups used Fisher's exact test and chi 2 analysis (alpha = 0.05). There were 2,185 patients encountered with 1,443 (66%) discharged for referral, and an overall compliance rate of 27.8% (401 patients). Patients had a mean age of 36.9 years; 50.6% were male, 94.4% were established patients, 51.1% were clinic cases, and 96.7% had nonurgent complaints. Patients encountered had higher rates of compliance if female (33.9%), greater than 40 years of age (43.4%), with urgent complaints (46.8%), and if referred to private physicians (37.0%) (P less than .001). Compliance also correlated with the diagnosis of fracture (63.3%) or laceration (45.6%); and specialty referral to obstetrics-gynecology (28.4%) and general surgery (22.4%) consultants (P less than .01). Most patients demonstrate low compliance (28%) with follow-up recommendations, even with a directed ED referral system.

Aeromonas hydrophila: myofascial necrosis and sepsis

An alcoholic patient with ascites was admitted to the intensive care unit for gastrointestinal bleeding. He subsequently developed spontaneous myonecrosis of the extremities culminating in sepsis syndrome. This was a unique, non-traumatic presentation of Aeromonas hydrophila soft tissue injury.

Adult and pediatric pharyngitis: a review

Acute pharyngitis is frequently encountered in the ambulatory care setting. Although usually of viral etiology, streptococcal disease is the focus of diagnostic efforts, in light of significant suppurative and nonsuppurative sequelae. The traditional symptoms of fever, adenopathy, and pharyngeal exudate are suggestive, but not diagnostic of streptococcal pharyngitis. Thus, the importance of diagnostic testing, including Group A beta hemolytic strep antigen screen and culture, is emphasized. Recent innovations in therapy include modification of antibiotic dosing regimens and use of cephalosporins to improve patient compliance.

Low back pain: review of diagnosis and therapy

Low back pain is a patient complaint frequently encountered in the emergency department setting. The disease entity is often a diagnostic challenge with a subtle presentation, but can be accompanied by significant neurovascular complications. Current topics of controversy include the utility of radiologic evaluation, pharmacologic and holistic treatment strategies, as well as guidelines for urgent referral of patients with lumbar pain.

Confirmation of endotracheal tube placement: a miniaturized infrared qualitative CO2 detector

STUDY OBJECTIVES

A miniaturized, infrared, solid-state, end-tidal CO2 detector was used to confirm emergency endotracheal tube (ETT) placement.

DESIGN

This prospective, clinical study used a miniature, infrared, solid-state end-tidal CO2 detector to confirm ETT placement in an acute setting.

SETTING

The ICU, emergency department, and hospital floor.

TYPE OF PARTICIPANTS

There were 88 consecutive adult patients requiring 100 emergency intubations.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

The indication for airway intervention was considered urgent in 79% and under arrest conditions in 21%. The mean number of intubation attempts was 1.83 (range, one to five) with difficulty of intubation of 6.48 and confirmation of 7.75, on a linear scale from 0 (lowest) to 10 (highest). Determination of ETT position revealed intratracheal intubation in 96% and esophageal intubation in 4%. Placement was confirmed by direct visualization or radiography in all cases. Sensitivity and specificity for ETT localization was 100% (P less than .0001).

CONCLUSION

This hand-held infrared capnometer reliably confirms ETT placement under emergency conditions.

Glucagon: prehospital therapy for hypoglycemia

STUDY OBJECTIVE

This study evaluated the efficacy of glucagon for prehospital therapy of hypoglycemia in patients without IV access.

DESIGN

Prospective clinical trial.

SETTING

Prehospital in a busy, urban emergency medical services system.

TYPE OF PARTICIPANTS

Fifty consecutive patients presenting with documented hypoglycemia (ChemStrip BG less than or equal to 80 mg/dL) and symptoms of decreased level of consciousness, syncope, or seizure were enrolled.

MEASURES AND MAIN RESULTS

Data collected included pretreatment (ChemStrip BG) and post-treatment serum glucose (hospital assay) as well as assessment of level of consciousness by a quantitative measure, the Glasgow Coma Score, and by a qualitative scale (0 to 3). The mean pretreatment blood glucose of 33.2 +/- 23.3 mg/dL increased after treatment to 133.3 +/- 57.3 mg/dL. Qualitative level of consciousness increased from a mean of 1.26 +/- .96 to 2.42 +/- .94 and Glasgow Coma Score increased from a mean of 9.0 +/- 4.19 to 13.04 +/- 3.68. The mean time until response was 8.8 minutes in those who responded to both level of consciousness criteria 82% (41 of 50). Glucagon administered for hypoglycemia resulted in a glucose increase in 98% (49 of 50) with headache as the only side effect noted in 4% (two of 50) of patients (P less than .0001).

CONCLUSION

Glucagon is safe and effective therapy for hypoglycemia in the prehospital setting.

Torsades de pointes therapy with phenytoin

We present the case of a woman with myocardial infarction complicated by malignant ventricular arrhythmia and torsades de pointes. The torsades de pointes was refractory to conventional therapy but responsive to phenytoin. This case suggests the clinical usefulness of phenytoin for adjunct therapy of life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias when standard treatment modalities fail.

Polyarticular symmetric tophaceous joint inflammation as the initial presentation of gout

A 76-year-old woman suffered from bilateral distal index finger pain and swelling. The patient had been initially treated with antibiotics for herpetic whitlow complicated by a secondary bacterial infection. Gout was diagnosed through clinical history, physical examination and identification of monosodium urate crystals in the joint aspirate. Gout appearing as polyarticular, symmetric tophi involving the periungual region and distal interphalangeal joint has not been previously described.