Is General Self-Efficacy a Universal Construct?1

Summary Perceived self-efficacy represents an optimistic sense of personal competence that seems to be a pervasive phenomenon accounting for motivation and accomplishments in human beings. The General Self-Efficacy scale, developed to measure this construct at the broadest level, has been adapted to many languages. The psychometric properties of this instrument is examined among 19,120 participants from 25 countries. The main research question is whether the measure is configurally equivalent across cultures, that is, whether it corresponds to only one dimension. The findings confirm this assumption and suggest the globality of the underlying construct. They also point to a number of cross-cultural differences that merit further investigation.

The general self-efficacy scale: multicultural validation studies

General self-efficacy is the belief in one's competence to cope with a broad range of stressful or challenging demands, whereas specific self-efficacy is constrained to a particular task at hand. Relations between general self-efficacy and social cognitive variables (intention, implementation intentions, outcome expectancies, and self-regulation), behavior-specific self-efficacy, health behaviors, well-being, and coping strategies were examined among 1,933 respondents in 3 countries: Germany (n = 633), Poland (n = 359), and South Korea (n = 941). Participants were between 16 and 86 years old, and some were dealing with stressful situations such as recovery from myocardial events or tumor surgery. Perceived self-efficacy was measured by means of the General Self-Efficacy Scale (R. Schwarzer & M. Jerusalem, 1995). Meta-analysis was used to determine population effect sizes for four sets of variables. Across countries and samples, there is consistent evidence for associations between perceived self-efficacy and the variables under study confirming the validity of the psychometric scale. General self-efficacy appears to be a universal construct that yields meaningful relations with other psychological constructs.

Mechanisms of health behavior change in persons with chronic illness or disability: the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA)

OBJECTIVE

The present article presents an overview of theoretical constructs and mechanisms of health behavior change that have been found useful in research on people with chronic illness and disability. A self-regulation framework (Health Action Process Approach) serves as a backdrop, making a distinction between goal setting and goal pursuit. Risk perception, outcome expectancies, and task self-efficacy are seen as predisposing factors in the goal-setting (motivational) phase, whereas planning, action control, and maintenance/recovery self-efficacy are regarded as being influential in the subsequent goal-pursuit (volitional) phase. The first phase leads to forming an intention, and the second to actual behavior change. Such a mediator model serves to explain social-cognitive processes in health behavior change. By adding a second layer, a moderator model is provided in which three stages are distinguished to segment the audience for tailored interventions. Identifying persons as preintenders, intenders, or actors offers an opportunity to match theory-based treatments to specific target groups. Numerous research and assessment examples, especially within the physical activity domain, serve to illustrate the application of the model to rehabilitation settings and health promotion for people with chronic illness or disability.

CONCLUSIONS/IMPLICATIONS

The theoretical developments and research evidence for the self-regulation framework explain the cognitive mechanisms of behavior change and adherence to treatment in the rehabilitation setting.

Action plans and coping plans for physical exercise: A longitudinal intervention study in cardiac rehabilitation

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study was to test two brief planning interventions designed to encourage cardiac patients to engage in regular physical exercise following discharge from rehabilitation. The interventions comprised action plans on (a) when, where, and how to act, and (b) coping plans on how to deal with anticipated barriers.

DESIGN AND METHOD

An experimental longitudinal trial was conducted to test two interventions that either focused on action planning alone, or on a combination of action planning and coping planning. A total of 211 participants completed assessments at baseline and 2 months after discharge. Participants were randomly assigned to either one of the intervention groups or a standard-care control group.

RESULTS

Participants in the combined planning group did significantly more physical exercise 2 months post-discharge than those in the other groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The theoretical distinction between action planning and coping planning as introduced in the present study has proven useful in explaining changes in health-related behaviour. The combined planning intervention can be applied in the context of cardiac rehabilitation programmes.

Soziale Unterstützung bei der Krankheitsbewältigung: Die Berliner Social Support Skalen (BSSS)

Zusammenfassung. Die Berliner Social Support Skalen (BSSS; Schwarzer & Schulz, 2000 ) unterscheiden sich von anderen Fragebogenverfahren zur sozialen Unterstützung durch ihren mehrdimensionalen Ansatz: Sowohl kognitive als auch behaviorale Aspekte sozialer Unterstützung können mit den insgesamt 6 Skalen (Wahrgenommene, Erhaltene und Geleistete Unterstützung, Bedürfnis und Suche nach Unterstützung, Protektives Abfedern) erhoben werden. Die vorliegende Untersuchung beruht auf einer Stichprobe von 457 Krebspatienten, die mehrmals vor und nach einer Operation befragt wurden. In dieser Studie erwiesen sich die Skalen als psychometrisch befriedigend. Zahlreiche Hinweise auf die Validität konnten ermittelt werden. Unter anderem war es möglich, auch die erhaltene Patientenunterstützung durch die Unterstützung seitens des Partners vorherzusagen. Das beschriebene Inventar steht unter http://www.coping.de zur Verfügung.

Adoption and maintenance of four health behaviors: Theory-guided longitudinal studies on dental flossing, seat belt use, dietary behavior, and physical activity

BACKGROUND

Adoption and maintenance of health behaviors are often poorly predicted by behavioral intentions. To bridge the gap between intentions and behavior, strategic planning and recovery self-efficacy have been suggested as proximal predictors.

PURPOSE

The aim was to examine the usefulness of a prediction model that includes planning and self-efficacy as postintentional mediator variables.

METHODS

Four longitudinal studies were conducted on dental flossing (Study I, N = 157), seat belt use (Study II, N = 298), dietary behaviors (Study III, N = 700), and physical activity (Study IV, N = 365). Dental flossing and seat belt use were assessed in students by paper-and-pencil questionnaires, whereas dietary behavior and physical activity inventories were presented to the general public in the internet.

RESULTS

By structural equation modeling, it was found that one common model fits all four data sets well. Results differed in terms of variance accounted for, but the overall patterns of estimated parameters were similar across samples.

CONCLUSIONS

Self-efficacy and planning seemed to be functional as proximal predictors of health behaviors, whereas health risk perception appeared to be a negligible factor. When predicting health behaviors, self-regulatory variables should be used in addition to the behavioral intention.

How to Overcome Health-Compromising Behaviors

Health-compromising behaviors such as cigarette smoking and poor dietary habits are difficult to change. Most social-cognitive theories assume that the intention to change is the best predictor of actual change, but people often do not behave in accordance with their intentions. Unforeseen barriers emerge, or people give in to temptations. Therefore, intentions should be supplemented by more proximal predictors that might facilitate the translation of intentions into action. Some self-regulatory mediators have been identified, such as perceived self-efficacy and strategic planning. They help to bridge the intention-behavior gap. The Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) suggests a distinction between (1) a preintentional motivation process that leads to a behavioral intention and (2) a postintentional volition process that facilitates the adoption and maintenance of health behaviors. In this article, two studies are reported that examine mediators between intentions and two behaviors. One behavior is smoking reduction in young adults, the other is dietary restraint in overweight patients with chronic disease. A structural equation model, specified in terms of the HAPA, was in line with both data sets but it explained more variance of dietary behaviors among middle-aged or older individuals with a health condition whereas variance of smoking reduction in healthy young adults was less well accounted for. The findings contribute to the elucidation of psychological mechanisms in health behavior change and point to the particular role of mediator variables.

Social-Cognitive Factors in Changing Health-Related Behaviors

Changing health-related behaviors requires two separate processes that involve motivation and volition, respectively. First, an intention to change is developed, in part on the basis of self-beliefs. Second, the change must be planned, initiated, and maintained, and relapses must be managed; self-regulation plays a critical role in these processes. Social-cognition models of health behavior change address these two processes. One such model, the health action process approach, is explicitly based on the assumption that two distinct phases need to be studied longitudinally, one phase that leads to a behavioral intention and another that leads to the actual behavior. Particular social-cognitive variables may play different roles in the two stages; perceived self-efficacy is the only predictor that seems to be equally important in the two phases.

Beyond behavioural intentions: planning mediates between intentions and physical activity

OBJECTIVES

Health-behaviour change is not predicted well by behavioural intentions alone. Action planning and coping planning are two self-regulatory strategies that may help bridge the gap between intentions and behaviour. Action planning comprises the when, where and how of implementing a behaviour. Coping planning involves the anticipation of barriers and ways to overcome them. The study examines whether the inclusion of these two planning constructs would improve the overall prediction of physical activity. The main research question is which kind of planning would be beneficial for the initiation of behaviour and which one for its maintenance. Moreover, it is examined whether intentions moderate the planning-behaviour relationship.

METHODS

A 5-week longitudinal on-line study was conducted with 354 participants. Differences in prediction patterns between formerly active and formerly inactive individuals were compared using multigroup structural equation modelling. Moderating effects of intentions were tested by means of latent interactions.

RESULTS

Inclusion of the two planning factors accounted for substantially more behaviour variance than intention alone did. Coping planning mediated the intention-behaviour relationship only in formerly active, but not in formerly inactive participants. Moreover, intentions moderated the effects of both types of planning on behaviour.

CONCLUSIONS

Action planning appears to predict behaviour only when intentions are high. For actors, coping planning represents a critical self-regulation strategy to maintain their physical activity levels.

Improving fruit and vegetable consumption: a self-efficacy intervention compared with a combined self-efficacy and planning intervention

Effects of interventions targeting self-efficacy alone or combined with action plans were examined in the context of fruit and vegetable consumption. E-mail messages were sent to a self-efficacy group, a combined self-efficacy and action planning group and a control group. At a 6-month follow-up, 200 adults reported their fruit and vegetable consumption, along with current levels of self-efficacy and planning. The two experimental groups gained equally from the interventions, as documented by changes in behavior. In both intervention groups, change in respective cognitions predicted change in fruit and vegetable consumption. Parsimonious interventions might contribute to health behavior change.

Coping as a mediator between personality and stress outcomes: a longitudinal study with cataract surgery patients

Personality and coping were specified as predictors of emotional outcomes of a mildly stressful medical procedure. Situation‐specific coping was examined in contrast to dispositional coping, and it was tested whether one or the other would mediate the relationship between higher‐order personality factors and stress outcomes. Cataract patients (N=110) participated at four measurement points in time during a six‐week period surrounding their scheduled surgery. Dispositional coping did not mediate the personality–outcome relationship. In contrast, situation‐specific coping acquired a mediator status between personality and adaptational criteria and accounted for independent outcome variance once personality traits were included as predictors in the models. Thus, the data suggest that whether or not coping mediates between personality factors and affective outcomes may be related to the methodological approaches of its operationalization. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Social-cognitive predictors of physical exercise adherence: three longitudinal studies in rehabilitation

OBJECTIVE

Levels of physical exercise adherence are not predicted well by behavioral intentions. Therefore, action planning and recovery self-efficacy were specified as proximal predictors to bridge the gap between intentions and adherence. The prediction model was examined in 3 studies with participants who were enrolled in cardiac rehabilitation (Study 1, N = 353; Study 2, N = 114) or orthopedic rehabilitation (Study 3, N = 368).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Each study included 3 measurement points in time, covering a period between 4 and 12 months. Intentions, planning, self-efficacy, and exercise levels were assessed.

RESULTS

Structural equation modeling revealed that 1 common model fit all 3 data sets well. Results differed in terms of variance accounted for, but the overall patterns of estimated parameters were similar.

CONCLUSIONS

Although health risk perception appeared to be a negligible factor, action planning and recovery self-efficacy were effective predictors of physical exercise adherence.