Matrix-dependent plasticity of the malignant phenotype of bladder cancer cells

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of cancer- and normal basement membrane-derived extracellular matrix to modulate the phenotype of bladder cancer cell lines. Five lines, varying in malignancy from papilloma to highly undifferentiated and invasive and immortalized human urothelial cells, were grown on two extracellular matrix preparations, Matrigel and SISgel. Matrigel represents matrix remodeled by malignancy while SISgel, obtained from small intestine submucosa (SIS), represents the normal matrix supporting differentiated cell growth. On Matrigel, regardless of the content of growth factors, the invasive lines displayed an invasive phenotype, while the low grade lines grew as papillary structures. In contrast, when the same cells were grown on SISgel, they grew as a layer of cells one to 5 cells thick, failed to invade, and expressed cell-surface E-cadherin. Unlike breast cancer cells, neutralization of beta 1, beta 4 and alpha 6 integrins altered cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesiveness but did not alter the phenotype. When invasive cells were grown on mixtures of SISgel and Matrigel, the phenotype changed gradually, not abruptly, indicating that factors within the gel reversibly alter the phenotypic expression of invasion. In summary, the phenotype of bladder cancer cells growing in tissue-like 3-dimensional culture is highly plastic, and malignant properties such as invasion and papillary growth can be suppressed by the matrix.

Mapping of the distribution of significant proteins and proteoglycans in small intestinal submucosa by fluorescence microscopy

Because small intestine submucosa (SIS) is a bioscaffold for tissue regeneration, we describe a method to analyze the material for growth peptides and for structural molecules. Immunofluorescence methods are described for relative quantification of abundant structural proteins. Additionally, a quantitative technique for comparison of the content of less abundant proteins in SIS was developed using the tyramide signal amplification (TSA) system that is applicable to paraffin-preserved tissue blocks. Frozen sections generally shredded when cut thinly enough to permit entry and washout of reagents. Five micrometer sections cut from paraffin blocks were immunolabeled for collagen, heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), FGF2, TGFbeta, and VEGF. Images of tissue sections were acquired by a linear image camera and quantified by densitometry after thresholding the signal to minimize nonspecific fluorescence. Immunohistochemistry was used to confirm the immunofluorescence methods. HSPG was widely distributed but concentrated in vessels. FGF2 was distributed diffusely and was associated with fibrous structures. VEGF was distributed mainly around vessels. TGFbeta was barely detectable above background. Collagen fibrils were distinctly present, and with a two-color fluorescence system, the distribution of components relative to collagen can be assessed. The anatomic structure of SIS is likely to play an important role in the regeneration of tissues, and factors in remnant vessels may facilitate penetration of the matrix along these avenues.

Pan-cadherin as a high level phenotypic biomarker for prostate cancer

PURPOSE

High level phenotypic biomarkers such as cadherins are needed to identify individuals at risk for biologically active prostate cancer and determine which individuals with elevated prostate specific antigen or a prostate nodule are candidates for re-biopsy. Cadherins are a high level phenotypic biomarker associated with decreased cell adhesion, which is a cardinal event in carcinogenesis. Recently we reported that G-actin and tissue transglutaminase type II are potential biomarkers for prostate cancer. In this study we present cadherins as a potential third component of the biomarker profile.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Prostate tissues from 38 patients with cancer and 33 controls with a 10-year prostate cancer-free followup were labeled for pan-cadherin by immunohistochemical testing. Immunoreactivity was quantified using a Pathology Workstation (Autocyte Inc., Elon College, North Carolina).

RESULTS

Visually benign glands from controls generally expressed cadherins, whereas regions of adenocarcinoma were generally negative. On quantitative immunohistochemistry 36 of 38 prostate cancer cases expressed a lower mean percent area positive for cadherin than the 19 benign prostatic hyperplasia and 14 prostatitis cases (odds ratio 978, 95% confidence interval 45 to 21,140, relative risk 18, 95% confidence interval 5 to 67, p <0.0001). Receiver operating characteristics analysis of immunohistochemical testing data showed that an optimal threshold of 7 produced 95% sensitivity and 100% specificity.

CONCLUSIONS

Quantitative down-regulation of cadherin expression in prostate cancer tissue sections is a strong biomarker for prostate cancer. Analysis of cadherin and other high level phenotypic biomarker expression in the premalignant field may provide additional diagnostic information to decide which patients need re-biopsy, more intensive monitoring or chemoprevention.

G-actin as a risk factor and modulatable endpoint for cancer chemoprevention trials

Because tumorigenesis is an ongoing process, biomarkers can be used to identify individuals at risk for bladder cancer, and treatment of those at risk to prevent or slow further progression could be an effective means of cancer control given accurate individual risk assessment. Tumorigenesis proceeds through a series of defined phenotypic changes, including those in genetically altered cells destined to become cancer as well as in surrounding normal cells responding to the altered cytokine environment. A panel of biomarkers for the changes can provide a useful system for individual risk assessment in cancer patients and in individuals exposed to carcinogens. The use of such markers can increase the specificity of chemoprevention trials by targeting therapy to patients likely to respond, and thereby markedly reduce the costs of the trials. Previous studies in our laboratories showed the cytoskeletal proteins G- and F-actin reflect differentiation-related changes in cells undergoing tumorigenesis and in adjacent "field" cells, and a pattern of low F-actin and high G-actin is indicative of increased risk. Actin changes may be a common feature in genetic and epigenetic carcinogenic mechanisms. In a group of over 1600 workers exposed to benzidine, G-actin correlated with exposure, establishing it as an early marker of effect. In another study, a profile of biomarkers was monitored in patients who underwent transurethral resection of bladder tumor (TURBT) and received Bacillus Calmette Guerin (BCG) and/or DMSO. The primary objective was to determine how the defined biomarkers expressed in the tumor and the field correlate with clinical response and recurrence. DMSO, known to modulate G-actin in vitro, was used as an agent. Results strongly support the hypothesis that cytosolic G-actin levels measured by quantitative fluorescence image analysis (QFIA) can be an important intermediate endpoint marker for chemoprevention and that the p300 (M344) and DNA ploidy markers identify a high-risk group that requires more aggressive therapy and recurrence monitoring. Further research with other markers has shown that DD23 and nuclear actin, both of which identify late, specific changes, may increase the battery of useful markers. Taken together these studies show how biomarkers are employed to study individuals at risk, aid in the selection of chemopreventive compounds and assist in the understanding of the pathogenesis of malignancy.

Biomarkers in monitoring for efficacy of immunotherapy and chemoprevention of bladder cancer with dimethylsulfoxide

This study correlated biomarkers expressed in tumor and epithelial field with clinical response and recurrence. Of 25 bladder cancer patients, 11 received 6 weeks of intravesical Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG), and 14 were treated weekly with intravesical dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) for 4 weeks to further modulate biomarker expression. G-actin, DNA aneuploidy, and p300 tumor antigen were evaluated by quantitative fluorescence image analysis on uroepithelial cells from bladder wash samples prior to and immediately following treatment. Excluding patients who did not respond to BCG (and who had persistently abnormal p300 and DNA markers), recurrence correlated with persistent abnormal G-actin findings. Of patients who were G-actin negative following therapy, only 25% recurred during follow-up in contrast to 67% in patients who were positive (p < 0.03 by Fisher's exact test). The odds ratio for recurrence was 6.00 (95% confidence interval: 1.3-28.6). Cytosolic G-actin levels can be an important intermediate end point marker for chemoprevention.

Biomarker risk assessment and bladder cancer detection in a cohort exposed to benzidine

BACKGROUND

Cancer screening with highly sensitive, specific biomarkers that reflect molecular phenotypic alterations is an attractive strategy for cancer control. We examined whether biomarker profiles could be used for risk assessment and cancer detection in a cohort of Chinese workers occupationally exposed to benzidine and at risk for bladder cancer.

METHODS

The cohort consisted of 1788 exposed and 373 nonexposed workers, followed from 1991 through 1997. We assayed urothelial cells from voided urine samples for DNA ploidy (expressed as the 5C-exceeding rate [DNA 5CER]), the bladder tumor-associated antigen p300, and a cytoskeletal protein (G-actin). Workers were stratified into different risk groups (high, moderate, and low risk) at each examination based on a predefined biomarker profile. For workers who developed bladder cancer, tumor risk assessment was analyzed from samples collected 6-12 months before the cancer diagnosis. The associations between risk group and subsequent development of bladder cancer were analyzed by Cox proportional hazards regression analysis and logistic analysis, after adjustment. All statistical tests were two-sided.

RESULTS

Twenty-eight bladder cancers were diagnosed in exposed workers and two in nonexposed workers. For risk assessment, DNA 5CER had 87.5% sensitivity, 86.5% specificity, an odds ratio (OR) of 46.2 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 8.1 to 867.0), and a risk ratio (RR) of 16.2 (95% CI = 7.1 to 37.0); p300 had 50.0% sensitivity, 97.9% specificity, an OR of 40.0 (95% CI = 9.0 to 177.8), and an RR of 37.9 (95% CI = 16.8 to 85.3). The risk of developing bladder cancer was 19.6 (95% CI = 8.0 to 47.9) times higher in workers positive for either the DNA 5CER or p300 biomarkers than in workers negative for both biomarkers and 81.4 (95% CI = 33.3 to 199.3) times higher in workers positive for both biomarkers. G-actin was a poor marker of individual risk.

CONCLUSIONS

Occupationally exposed workers at risk for bladder cancer can be individually stratified, screened, monitored, and diagnosed based on predefined molecular biomarker profiles.

Abnormal G-actin content in single prostate cells as a biomarker of prostate cancer

The distribution of altered G-actin was investigated in prostatic cells obtained by fine needle aspiration (FNA) from 27 excised prostate glands obtained during radical prostatectomy. FNA, which was used to obtain single cells for image analysis, sampled in the region of any nodules and in grossly normal areas of the contralateral lobes. Quantitative fluorescence-image analysis was used to assay the amount of G-actin in individual cells. Abnormal G-actin, a precursor cytoskeletal protein representing cytoskeletal rearrangements accompanying cellular transformation, was associated with the presence of adenocarcinoma in 22 of 27 specimens from the dominant nodule, but only 3 of 20 in the grossly normal specimens (P<.0001). The mean G-actin content of all samples from the dominant nodule was 113.2+/-6.87 and 69.57+/-4.47 from the grossly normal area, the difference being significant at P<.0001. Altered G-actin was not associated with Gleason score (P = .95), grade (P = .26), stage (P = .058), or tumor volume (P = .32), thereby indicating it is a general marker for prostate adenocarcinoma.

Loss of tissue transglutaminase as a biomarker for prostate adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Additional molecular tissue biomarkers for prostate carcinoma are needed to stratify patients with clinically suspicious findings, such as an elevated prostate specific antigen (PSA) with a negative biopsy, according to risk.

METHODS

Prostate tissues from 43 cancer cases and 47 controls with no evidence of cancer were labeled for transglutaminase by immunohistochemistry. Immunoreactivity was quantified using the Autocyte Pathology Workstation. In addition, quantitative fluorescence image analysis was used to compare transglutaminase concentrations in cells obtained by fine-needle aspiration from excised prostates. Loss of gene expression was evaluated by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and growth with 5-azacytidine.

RESULTS

Visually, benign glands from controls generally expressed tissue transglutaminase, whereas regions with adenocarcinoma generally were negative. With quantitative immunohistochemistry, 41 of 43 adenocarcinoma of the prostate (CaP) cases expressed lower mean percentage areas positive for transglutaminase than did 30 of 30 benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and 17 of 17 prostatitis cases (P < 0.0001; odds ratio [OR], 1577; 95% confidence interval (CI), 74-33, 820; relative risk [RR], 25; 95% CI, 6-95). Quantitative immunofluorescence of 3277 cells collected by FNA from 19 CaP cases and 645 cells from 5 cases of BPH showed that the mean content of transglutaminase was 93 femtograms (fg) for the CaP-derived cells and 138 fg for the BPH cells (P < 0.0001). Receiver operating curve analysis of the immunohistochemistry data showed an optimized threshold produced 95% sensitivity with 100% specificity. Growth of LNCaP cells with 5-azacytidine failed to stimulate transglutaminase expression, suggesting that loss of expression was likely not attributable to promoter methylation.

CONCLUSIONS

Measurements of transglutaminase on tissue sections provides additional diagnostic information that is potentially useful for risk assessment of patients with suspicious clinical findings, such as nodules or positive PSA and negative biopsies, without overdetecting disease.

Complexity, Retinoid-Responsive Gene Networks, and Bladder Carcinogenesis

Carcinogenesis involves inactivation or subversion of the normal controls of proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. However, these controls are robust, redundant, and interlinked at the gene expression levels, regulation of mRNA lifetimes, transcription, and recycling of proteins. One of the central systems of control of proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis is retinoid signaling. The hRAR alpha nuclear receptor occupies a central position with respect to induction of gene transcription in that when bound to appropriate retinoid ligands, its homodimers and heterodimers with hRXR alpha regulate the transcription of a number of retinoid-responsive genes. These include genes in other signaling pathways, so that the whole forms a complex network. In this study we showed that simple, cause-effect interpretations in terms of hRAR alpha gene transcription being the central regulatory event would not describe the retinoid-responsive gene network. A set of cultured bladder-derived cells representing different stages of bladder tumorigenesis formed a model system. It consisted of 2 immortalized bladder cell lines (HUC-BC and HUC-PC), one squamous cell carcinoma cell line (SCaBER), one papilloma line (RT4), and 4 transitional cell carcinomas (TCC-Sup, 5637, T24, J82) of varying stages and grades. This set of cells were used to model the range of behaviors of bladder cancers. Relative gene expression before (constitutive) and after treatment with 10 microM all-trans-retinoic acid (aTRA) was measured for androgen and estrogen receptor; a set of genes involved with retinoid metabolism and action, hRAR alpha nd beta, hRXR alpha and beta CRBP, CRABP I and II; and for signaling genes that are known to be sensitive to retinoic acid, EGFR, cytokine MK, ICAM I and transglutaminase. The phenotype for inhibition of proliferation and for apoptotic response to both aTRA and the synthetic retinoid 4-HPR was determined. Transfection with a CAT-containing plasmid containing an aTRA-sensitive promoter was used to determine if the common retinoic acid responsive element (RARE)-dependent pathway for retinoid regulation of gene expression was active. Each of the genes selected is known from previous studies to react to aTRA in a certain way, either by up- or down-regulation of the message and protein. A complex data set not readily interpretable by simple cause and effect was observed. While all cell lines expressed high levels of the mRNAs for hRXR alpha and beta that were not altered by treatment with exogenous aTRA, constitutive and stimulated responses of the other genes varied widely among the cell lines. For example, CRABP I was not expressed by J82, T24, 5637 and RT4, but was expressed at low levels that did not change in SCaBER and at moderate levels that decreased, increased, or decreased sharply in HUC-BC, TCC-Sup and HUC-PC, respectively. The expression of hRAR alpha, which governs the expression of many retinoid-sensitive genes, was expressed at moderate to high levels in all cell lines, but in some it was sharply upregulated (TCC-Sup, HUC-PC and J82), remained constant (5637 and HUC-BC), or was down-regulated (SCaBER, T24 and RT4). The phenotypes for inhibition of proliferation showed no obvious relationship to the expression of any single gene, but cell lines that were inhibited by aTRA (HUC-BC and TCC-Sup) were not sensitive to 4-HPR, and vice versa. One line (RT4) was insensitive to either retinoid. Transfection showed very little retinoid-stimulated transfection of the CAT reporter gene with RT4 or HUC-PC. About 2-fold enhancement transactivation was observed with SCaBER, HUC-BC, J82 and T24 cells and 3-8 fold with 5637, TCC-Sup cells. In HUC-BC, a G to T point mutation was found at position 606 of the hRAR alpha gene. This mutation would substitute tyrosine for asparagine in a highly conserved domain. These data indicate that retinoid signaling is probably a frequent target of inactivation in bladder carcinogenesis. (ABSTRAC

Quantitative changes in cytoskeletal and nuclear actins during cellular transformation

Actin, a highly conserved protein comprising cell stress fibers and other cellular structures, is found in both the cytoplasm and nucleus of cells and responds to both epigenetic signals and altered gene expression occurring during tumorigenesis. We have previously shown that changes in the cytoplasmic F- and G-actin ratios reflect bladder cancer risk. To determine whether nuclear actin is also altered and how nuclear and cytoplasmic actin alterations are interrelated in transformation, an in vitro model of carcinogen-induced transformation consisting of 2 human uroepithelial cell lines immortalized by infection with SV-40 was studied. One line, HUC-PC, is tumorigenic in nude mice after incubation with the carcinogen 4-ABP, the other, HUC-BC, is not. Cytoplasmic and nuclear F- and G-actin were determined by QFIA on individual cells using fluorochrome-labeled phallicidin and DNase, I, respectively. Before exposure to 4-ABP, the PC cells had lower cytoplasmic F-actin content, higher cytoplasmic G-actin content, but similar levels of nuclear G- and F-actin in comparison to the BC cells. After incubation with 4-ABP, F-actin decreased and G-actin increased in both cytoplasm and nuclei of PC cells and cytoplasmic F-actin fibers were lost, but only cytoplasmic actin was altered in the BC cells. Northern blot analysis showed the expression of the beta-actin gene was only approximately 20% lower in 4-ABP-treated PC cells than in untreated controls, indicating the cellular change in actin was attributed to a shift between F- and G-actin proteins rather than to net actin synthesis.

Neural net-based identification of cells expressing the p300 tumor-related antigen using fluorescence image analysis

We report on preliminary investigations of the use of an image analysis system to perform preliminary algorithmic classification of images of fluorochrome-labeled cells followed by capture of gray-level images of potentially abnormal cells for analysis by a neural network. Cells were labeled with an antibody against a bladder cancer tumor-associated antigen, and the neural net was used to distinguish true-positive cells from negative cells, false-positive cells (autofluorescent or nonspecific labeling), and cell-sized artifacts. Gray-level cell images were digitized and processed for analysis by a feed-forward neural network using back-propagation. The network was trained and tested with two independent image sets. Various network configurations and activation functions were investigated, including a sinusoidal activation function. At high power, the network agreed completely with the human observer's classification. At low power, a strong clustering of cells classified by the network with expert classification was seen, while the neural network showed roughly 75% concordance with the human observer. In addition, a set of four features extracted from raw cell images were investigated. The features were: shape factor, texture, area, and average pixel intensity. A network trained with these features performed better than one operating with gray-level images. We conclude that using neural networks to recognize and classify images captured by an image analysis microscope is feasible.

Characterization of the DD23 tumor-associated antigen for bladder cancer detection and recurrence monitoring. Marker Network for Bladder Cancer

Bladder cancer detection, monitoring, and prevention represent major problems that could be addressed with sensitive and specific biomarkers. The antigen recognized by the DD23 antibody, previously developed against a tumor-related antigen, was partially biochemically characterized, and its sensitivity and specificity in cancer detection and recurrence monitoring was evaluated. Quantitative fluorescence image analysis was used to quantify antigen content in exfoliated urothelial cells in a cross-section of patients with bladder cancers of all grades and stages and control populations. The antigen was found in tumor cells as well as normal-appearing urothelial cells, suggesting it represents a marker induced by the altered growth factor environment of a cancer-containing bladder. When used as a quantitative marker, the sensitivity for bladder cancer detection was 85%, and the specificity was 95%. No significant difference was seen between symptomatic and asymptomatic control populations, including patients with previous bladder cancers in the absence of a recurrence. In bladder cancer recurrence monitoring, results were consistently negative until just before detection of a recurrence. The biomarker reflects a "field effect" that occurs very late in tumorigenesis and seems to represent events common to most cancers involving the genitourinary tract. Western blotting showed the antibody recognized a dimeric protein. DD23 quantification in single cells may be particularly useful in targeting cystoscopic intervention for recurrence monitoring and, because of its high specificity, could be a tool for bladder cancer screening in high-risk groups.

Bladder cancer risk assessment with quantitative fluorescence image analysis of tumor markers in exfoliated bladder cells

BACKGROUND

The detection of potentially highly curable low-grade bladder cancers by noninvasive techniques remains an unsolved problem. Conventional cytology detects such tumors with 50% sensitivity, and addition of DNA measurements to cytology only improves sensitivity incrementally. Tumor-associated antigens potentially offer an additional diagnostic marker.

METHODS

In this study, the M344 antibody against a tumor-associated antigen expressed mainly by low-grade tumor cells was tested for its sensitivity and specificity, alone and in combination with DNA ploidy and cytology. Voided urine samples from 69 asymptomatic control subjects, urines and bladder washings from 59 patients with cancer, and 195 symptomatic control patients were collected. Cells were double-labeled with M344 monoclonal antibody and Hoechst. Each case was blinded, and the number of positive cells was scored by two independent observers.

RESULTS

High-grade and low-grade transitional cell carcinomas (TCC) were detected with equal efficiency (78%, P < 0.001 versus symptomatic control patients). Urine samples proved higher specificity in detecting cancers. Patients being monitored for recurrence, but without current detectable cancer, were intermediates between control subjects and patients with cancer, suggesting that this marker also responds to dysplasia or field disease. Patients with outlet obstruction did not significantly differ from patients with previous TCC (P = 0.95). When combined with DNA ploidy measurements and cytology, the sensitivity for low-grade and high-grade tumors was 88% and 95%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The M344 antibody potentially could improve the specificity and sensitivity of detection of low-grade bladder tumors in symptomatic and asymptomatic patients as well as monitoring for recurrence, therapeutic response, and assessment of individual risk.

Alterations in phenotypic biochemical markers in bladder epithelium during tumorigenesis

Phenotypic biochemical markers of oncogenesis and differentiation were mapped in bladder biopsies to investigate changes that occur in bladder tumorigenesis and to identify markers for increased bladder cancer risk. Touch preparations from biopsy specimens from 30 patients were obtained from tumors, the adjacent bladder epithelium, and random distant bladder epithelium. Markers, including DNA ploidy, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and oncoproteins, were quantified in individual cells by using quantitative fluorescence image analysis. Cluster analysis revealed the markers fell into three independent groups: (i) G-actin and EGFR; (ii) ploidy, cytology, and p185 (HER-2/neu oncoprotein) (ERBB2); and (iii) p300, a low-grade tumor antigen. Each marker displayed a gradient of abnormality from distant field to adjacent field to tumor. Different patterns for each marker suggested a developmental sequence of bladder cancer oncogenesis; G-actin was altered in 58% of distant biopsies (vs. 0/6 normals, P < 0.001), ploidy and cytology were altered in < 20% of distant fields and approximately 80% of tumors, and the other markers were intermediate. Patterns of EGFR and p185 suggest low-and high-grade tracks diverge early (P < 0.05 by Mann-Whitney U test for EGFR and ANOVA for p185). In conclusion, this study shows that a sequence of phenotypic changes accompanies development and progression of bladder cancers. Biochemical alterations in cells of the bladder field are often detectable before abnormal pathology, and markers previously thought to be limited to tumors were found in the field. The hierarchy of expression may be useful in identifying high-risk patients, assessing completeness of response to therapy, and monitoring and predicting recurrence.

Intermediate endpoint biomarkers for chemoprevention

The understanding of intermediate endpoint biomarker expression in relation to the sequential events in bladder tumorigenesis establishes a useful approach for evaluating chemopreventive agents. Biomarkers may be genotypic or phenotypic and function as biomarkers of susceptibility, exposure, effect, or disease. This paper reviews several years of research on biomarkers and their use in monitoring chemoprevention therapy. In initial animal experiments, mice were dosed with N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)nitrosamine (OH-BBN) while co-administering N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)retinamide (4-HPR). 4-HPR did not statistically reduce tumor incidence, but did affect tumor differentiation and, consequently, nuclear size and DNA ploidy. These results suggest that nuclear size and ploidy may function as intermediate endpoint biomarkers of effect for oncogenesis and that epigenetic as well as genetic mechanisms may be primary in the oncogenic process. Early biomarkers of effect which occur prior to genetic effects or chromosome aberration may portend a higher probability of being modulated by differentiating agents such as retinoids. In vitro studies demonstrated that RPMI-7666 cells cultured with a phorbol ester tumor promoter (12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate) could be redifferentiated with 13-cis-retinoic acid and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). F-actin, a cytoskeletal biomarker with a presumed function in the epigenetic mechanisms of carcinogenesis, could also be normalized in HL-60 cells treated with 4-HPR or DMSO. A clinical evaluation of F-actin in patients with varying degrees of risk confirmed the value of F-actin as a differentiating biomarker useful for bladder cancer risk assessment. The clarification of when the phenotypic changes of F-actin occur in the oncogenic process was achieved when a variety of biochemical changes were mapped in the patients with bladder cancer. These studies confirmed that G-actin, a reciprocal form of F-actin, is increased relatively early in bladder cancer oncogenesis when multiple biomarkers are quantitated in the field, adjacent area, and the tumor. Comparison of each individual biomarker's expression from field, adjacent to tumor, and tumor, and subsequent cluster analysis of these biomarkers, indicated that the possible sequence of phenotypic expression of biomarkers in bladder cancer oncogenesis is from G-actin, to p300 antigen, to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), to p185 (neu oncogene product), to DNA aneuploidy and, finally, to visual morphology.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Identification of a high risk subgroup of grade 1 transitional cell carcinoma using image analysis based deoxyribonucleic acid ploidy analysis of tumor tissue

The use of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) cytometry to identify a subset of patients with grade 1, stage Ta or T1 transitional cell carcinoma at high risk for death or recurrence was investigated in a retrospective study using paraffin blocks from 88 low grade transitional cell carcinomas of the bladder with an absorptiometric video-based image analysis system. Tumors were evaluated for ploidy (70 diploid, 16 aneuploid and 2 tetraploid) and the presence of cells with greater than 5C DNA. Survival analysis of 62 patients with adequate followup (15 to 20 years) showed that 43 of 62 (69%) suffered recurrences and 13 (21%) died of bladder cancer. The single most important predictors of death and recurrence were stem line aneuploidy and the presence of cells with greater than 5C DNA, respectively.

Cellular F-actin levels as a marker for cellular transformation: correlation with bladder cancer risk

Previous findings in cultured cells that differentiated cells had markedly higher F-actin levels than undifferentiated cells (Cancer Res., 50: 2215-2220, 1990) suggested that quantitative F-actin measurements in urinary cells might provide diagnostic or prognostic information by identifying those individuals with cells tending towards a lower degree of differentiation. The feasibility of such an approach was investigated using a risk stratification schema. Bladder wash samples were obtained from 163 symptomatic patients being evaluated for bladder cancer and 41 asymptomatic controls without hematuria or other symptoms consistent with bladder cancer. F-actin levels were evaluated by flow cytometry using a fluorescent phalloidin probe. The risk of bladder cancer was stratified according to biopsy, either DNA ploidy by flow cytometry or quantitative fluorescence image analysis cytology, previous bladder cancer history, and hematuria. A strong correlation between the presence of cells with abnormally low F-actin content in cells obtained by bladder wash from 38 patients and biopsy-proved bladder transitional cell carcinoma (P less than 0.001) was observed. A strong correlation was also observed between the presence of cells with low F-actin content and risk of bladder cancer assessed by either stratification schema (P less than 0.0001). The correlation was more consistent with the stratification by quantitative fluorescence image analysis cytology because of the 37% false-positive rate of ploidy analysis by flow cytometry among the control patients. Further evidence that low F-actin was correlated with cellular abnormality was obtained from simultaneously labeling cells for F-actin and with M344 antibody, a monoclonal antibody against a low-grade bladder tumor-related antigen. These studies showed that the F-actin content of the M344-positive cells was lower than that of the M344-negative cells. These results suggest that F-actin could be an early and sensitive marker for bladder cancer detection and risk prognostication.

Congenital bovine epizootic arthrogryposis and hydranencephaly

Epizootics of congenital neurological defects in calves have been recorded at various intervals in south eastern New South Wales for over 40 years. In 1974 a particularly severe outbreak occurred. Field observations of the clinical entities, their time of appearance, distribution and incidence were recorded in an attempt to determine an epidemiological pattern. The neurological entities observed occupied different time spans in the epizootic, the order of appearance being polioencephalomyelitis, arthrogryposis, hydranencephaly and micrencephaly. The probable period of infection correlated well with the likely presence of Culiciodes brevitarsus in the epizootic area and the distribution and incidence of neurologic cases likewise correlated well with the expected geographical and climatic distribution of C. brevitarsus in this period. The probable association of Akabane virus infection and the outbreak of stillbirths and abortions which preceded the neurologic entities is discussed.