Paternal environment effects are driven by female reproductive fluid but not sperm age in an external fertilizer

Sperm ageing after ejaculation can generate paternal environment effects that impact offspring fitness. In many species, female reproductive fluids (FRFs), i.e. ancillary fluids released by eggs or within the female reproductive tract, may protect sperm from ageing and can additionally interact with sperm to influence offspring viability. This raises the intriguing prospect that FRFs may alleviate paternal effects associated with sperm ageing. Here, we test this novel hypothesis using the broadcast spawning mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis. We show that incubating sperm in FRF prior to fertilization increases offspring viability, and that these effects occur independently of sperm age. Our results provide novel evidence that FRFs allow females to selectively bias fertilization toward higher quality sperm within an ejaculate, which in turn yields more viable offspring. We consider this FRF-mediated paternal effect in the context of female physiological control over fertilization and the transgenerational effects of female-regulated haploid selection.

Testing for age-dependent effects of dietary restriction on the strength of condition dependence in ejaculate traits in the guppy (Poecilia reticulata)

Ejaculates can be costly to produce and depend on an individual's condition, defined as the pool of resources allocated to fitness. A method for assessing condition dependence is to manipulate resource availability and test for a reduction in trait expression. Here, we assess the effects of dietary restriction on two determinants of reproductive fitness in the guppy Poecilia reticulata-sperm production and sperm motility. Importantly, we administered dietary restriction at distinct developmental stages to test: (1) whether dietary restriction, when applied exclusively to juveniles, compromised the ejaculates of newly mature males; (2) whether any observed effects of dietary restriction seen in (1) were reversible when fish returned to an unrestricted diet; and (3) whether dietary restriction applied exclusively to adults influenced ejaculates. We found detrimental effects of resource limitation on both traits, and these were consistent across the three developmental stages tested. Furthermore, dietary restriction reduced male body weight, but this was partially reversed when diet-stressed juveniles (i.e. group 2) returned to unrestricted diets. This latter result suggests that diet-stressed males may sacrifice growth in order to maintain their investment in ejaculates. Together these findings underscore the importance of resource acquisition in determining the expression of ejaculate traits.

Female reproductive fluids 'rescue' sperm from phenotypic ageing in an external fertilizer

Female reproductive fluids (FRFs) serve key reproductive functions in sexually reproducing animals, including modifying the way sperm swim and detect eggs, and influencing sperm lifespan. Despite the central role of FRF during fertilization, we know surprisingly little about sperm-FRF interactions under different environmental conditions. Theory suggests that in external fertilizers FRF may 'rescue' sperm from ageing effects as they search to fertilize eggs. Here, we test the interaction between these two fundamental properties of the fertilization environment, ejaculate age (i.e. time since ejaculation) and FRF, on a range of functional sperm phenotypes in a broadcast spawning mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis. We found that the effects of ejaculate age on multivariate sperm motility traits and total sperm motility were altered by FRF, and that longer-lived sperm exhibit stronger, likely more advantageous, responses to FRF after periods of ageing. We also detected significant among-male variation in the relationship between sperm motility traits and ejaculate age; notably, these patterns were only revealed when sperm encountered FRF. Collectively these findings underscore the importance of considering female reproductive physiology when interpreting ageing-related declines in sperm motility, as doing so may expose importance sources of variation in sperm phenotypic plasticity among males and environments.

The use of microfluidic devices in studies of differential sperm chemotaxis

Differential sperm chemotaxis describes differences among male-female pairings in chemotactic responses of sperm to egg (or female)-derived chemical attractants. Microfluidic devices provide powerful platforms in which to study this complex gamete interaction. Here, we describe key challenges and potential solutions in applying this state-of-the-art technique to differential sperm chemotaxis.

Personality, sperm traits and a test for their combined dependence on male condition in guppies

There is evidence that animal personality can affect sexual selection, with studies reporting that male behavioural types are associated with success during pre- and post-copulatory sexual selection. Given these links between personality and sexual traits, and the accumulating evidence that their expression can depend on an individual's dietary status (i.e. condition), a novel prediction is that changes in a male's diet should alter both the average expression of personality and sexual traits, and their covariance. We tested these predictions using the guppy Poecilia reticulata, a species previously shown to exhibit strong condition dependence in ejaculate traits and a positive correlation between sperm production and individual variation in boldness. Contrary to expectation, we found that dietary restriction-when administered in mature adult males-did not affect the expression of either behavioural (boldness and activity) or ejaculate traits, although we did find that males subjected to dietary stress exhibited a positive association between sperm velocity and boldness that was not apparent in the unrestricted diet group. This latter finding points to possible context-dependent patterns of covariance between sexually selected traits and personalities, which may have implications for patterns of selection and evolutionary processes under fluctuating environmental conditions.

Personality, sperm traits and a test for their combined dependence on male condition in guppies

There is evidence that animal personality can affect sexual selection, with studies reporting that male behavioural types are associated with success during pre- and post-copulatory sexual selection. Given these links between personality and sexual traits, and the accumulating evidence that their expression can depend on an individual's dietary status (i.e. condition), a novel prediction is that changes in a male's diet should alter both the average expression of personality and sexual traits, and their covariance. We tested these predictions using the guppy Poecilia reticulata, a species previously shown to exhibit strong condition dependence in ejaculate traits and a positive correlation between sperm production and individual variation in boldness. Contrary to expectation, we found that dietary restriction-when administered in mature adult males-did not affect the expression of either behavioural (boldness and activity) or ejaculate traits, although we did find that males subjected to dietary stress exhibited a positive association between sperm velocity and boldness that was not apparent in the unrestricted diet group. This latter finding points to possible context-dependent patterns of covariance between sexually selected traits and personalities, which may have implications for patterns of selection and evolutionary processes under fluctuating environmental conditions.

Personality, sperm traits and a test for their combined dependence on male condition in guppies

There is evidence that animal personality can affect sexual selection, with studies reporting that male behavioural types are associated with success during pre- and post-copulatory sexual selection. Given these links between personality and sexual traits, and the accumulating evidence that their expression can depend on an individual's dietary status (i.e. condition), a novel prediction is that changes in a male's diet should alter both the average expression of personality and sexual traits, and their covariance. We tested these predictions using the guppy Poecilia reticulata, a species previously shown to exhibit strong condition dependence in ejaculate traits and a positive correlation between sperm production and individual variation in boldness. Contrary to expectation, we found that dietary restriction-when administered in mature adult males-did not affect the expression of either behavioural (boldness and activity) or ejaculate traits, although we did find that males subjected to dietary stress exhibited a positive association between sperm velocity and boldness that was not apparent in the unrestricted diet group. This latter finding points to possible context-dependent patterns of covariance between sexually selected traits and personalities, which may have implications for patterns of selection and evolutionary processes under fluctuating environmental conditions.

Ocean acidification alters sperm responses to egg-derived chemicals in a broadcast spawning mussel

The continued emissions of anthropogenic carbon dioxide are causing progressive ocean acidification (OA). While deleterious effects of OA on biological systems are well documented in the growth of calcifying organisms, lesser studied impacts of OA include potential effects on gamete interactions that determine fertilization, which are likely to influence the many marine species that spawn gametes externally. Here, we explore the effects of OA on the signalling mechanisms that enable sperm to track egg-derived chemicals (sperm chemotaxis). We focus on the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis, where sperm chemotaxis enables eggs to bias fertilization in favour of genetically compatible males. Using an experimental design based on the North Carolina II factorial breeding design, we test whether the experimental manipulation of seawater pH (comparing ambient conditions to predicted end-of-century scenarios) alters patterns of differential sperm chemotaxis. While we find no evidence that male–female gametic compatibility is impacted by OA, we do find that individual males exhibit consistent variation in how their sperm perform in lowered pH levels. This finding of individual variability in the capacity of ejaculates to respond to chemoattractants under acidified conditions suggests that climate change will exert considerable pressure on male genotypes that can withstand an increasingly hostile fertilization environment.

Density-dependent patterns of multivariate selection on sperm motility and morphology in a broadcast spawning mussel

Sperm cells exhibit extraordinary phenotypic variation, both among taxa and within individual species, yet our understanding of the adaptive value of sperm trait variation across multiple contexts is incomplete. For species without the opportunity to choose mating partners, such as sessile broadcast spawning invertebrates, fertilization depends on gamete interactions, which in turn can be strongly influenced by local environmental conditions that alter the concentration of sperm and eggs. However, the way in which such environmental factors impact phenotypic selection on functional gamete traits remains unclear in most systems. Here, we analyze patterns of linear and nonlinear multivariate selection under experimentally altered local sperm densities (densities within the capture zone of eggs) on a range of functionally important sperm traits in the broadcast spawning marine mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis. Specifically, we assay components of sperm motility and morphology across two fertilization environments that simulate either sperm limitation (when there are too few sperm to fertilize all available eggs), or sperm saturation (when there are many more sperm than required for fertilization, and the risk of polyspermy and embryonic failure is heightened). Our findings reveal that the strength, form, and targets of selection on sperm depend on the prevailing fertilization environment. In particular, our analyses revealed multiple significant axes of nonlinear selection on sperm motility traits under sperm limitation, but only significant negative directional selection on flagellum length under sperm saturation. These findings highlight the importance of local sperm densities in driving the adaptation of sperm phenotypes, particularly those related to sperm motility, in broadcast spawning invertebrates.

The thermal environment of sperm affects offspring success: a test of the anticipatory paternal effects hypothesis in the blue mussel

There has been an explosion of recent evidence that environments experienced by fathers or their ejaculates can influence offspring phenotypes (paternal effects). However, little is known about whether such effects are adaptive, which would have far-reaching implications for the many species facing rapidly changing environments. For example, some arguments suggest paternal effects might be a source of cross-generational plasticity, preparing offspring to face similar conditions to their father (anticipatory hypothesis). Alternatively, ejaculate-mediated effects on offspring may be non-adaptive by-products of stress. Here, we conduct an experiment to distinguish between these predictions, exposing ejaculates of the externally fertilizing mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis to ambient (19°C) and high (24°C) temperatures, then rearing offspring groups in temperatures that match and mismatch those of sperm. We find that, overall, high temperature-treated sperm induced higher rates of normal offspring development and higher success in transitioning to second-stage larvae, which may represent adaptive epigenetic changes or selection on sperm haplotypes. However, the progeny of high temperature-treated sperm did not perform better than those of ambient temperature-treated sperm when rearing temperatures were high. Overall, these findings offer little support for the anticipatory hypothesis and suggest instead that beneficial paternal effects may be eroded when offspring develop under stressful conditions.

Indirect parental effects on offspring viability by egg-derived fluids in an external fertilizer

The capacity for parents to influence offspring phenotypes via nongenetic inheritance is currently a major area of focus in evolutionary biology. Intriguing recent evidence suggests that sexual interactions among males and females, both before and during mating, are important mediators of such effects. Sexual interactions typically extend beyond gamete release, involving both sperm and eggs, and their associated fluids. However, the potential for gamete-level interactions to induce nongenetic parental effects remains under-investigated. Here, we test for such effects using an emerging model system for studying gamete interactions, the external fertilizer Mytilus galloprovincialis. We employed a split-ejaculate design to test whether exposing sperm to egg-derived chemicals (ECs) from a female would affect fertilization rate and offspring viability when those sperm were used to fertilize a different female's eggs. We found separate, significant effects of ECs from non-fertilizing females on both fertilization rate and offspring viability. The offspring viability effect indicates that EC-driven interactions can have nongenetic implications for offspring fitness independent of the genotypes inherited by those offspring. These findings provide a rare test of indirect parental effects driven exclusively by gamete-level interactions, and to our knowledge the first evidence that such effects occur via the gametic fluids of females.

Post-ejaculation thermal stress causes changes to the RNA profile of sperm in an external fertilizer

Sperm cells experience considerable post-ejaculation environmental variation. However, little is known about whether this affects their molecular composition, probably owing to the assumption that sperm are transcriptionally quiescent. Nevertheless, recent evidence shows sperm have distinct RNA profiles that affect fertilization and embryo viability. Moreover, RNAs are expected to be highly sensitive to extracellular changes. One such group of RNAs are heat shock protein (hsp) transcripts, which function in stress responses and are enriched in sperm. Here, we exploit the experimental tractability of the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis by exposing paired samples of ejaculated sperm to ambient (19°C) and increased (25°C) temperatures, then measure (i) sperm motility phenotypes, and (ii) messenger RNA (mRNA) levels of two target genes (hsp70 and hsp90) and several putative reference genes. We find no phenotypic changes in motility, but reduced mRNA levels for hsp90 and the putative reference gene gapdh at 25°C. This could reflect either decay of specific RNAs, or changes in translation and degradation rates of transcripts to maintain sperm function under stress. These findings represent, to our knowledge, the first evidence for changes in sperm RNA profiles owing to post-ejaculation environments, and suggest that sperm may be more vulnerable to stress from rising temperatures than currently thought.

Sexual selection after gamete release in broadcast spawning invertebrates

Broadcast spawning invertebrates offer highly tractable models for evaluating sperm competition, gamete-level mate choice and sexual conflict. By displaying the ancestral mating strategy of external fertilization, where sexual selection is constrained to act after gamete release, broadcast spawners also offer potential evolutionary insights into the cascade of events that led to sexual reproduction in more 'derived' groups (including humans). Moreover, the dynamic reproductive conditions faced by these animals mean that the strength and direction of sexual selection on both males and females can vary considerably. These attributes make broadcast spawning invertebrate systems uniquely suited to testing, extending, and sometimes challenging classic and contemporary ideas in sperm competition, many of which were first captured in Parker's seminal papers on the topic. Here, we provide a synthesis outlining progress in these fields, and highlight the burgeoning potential for broadcast spawners to provide both evolutionary and mechanistic understanding into gamete-level sexual selection more broadly across the animal kingdom. This article is part of the theme issue 'Fifty years of sperm competition'.

Egg-induced changes to sperm phenotypes shape patterns of multivariate selection on ejaculates

Sperm cells exhibit extraordinary phenotypic diversity and rapid rates of evolution, yet the adaptive value of most sperm traits remains equivocal. Recent findings suggest that to understand how selection targets ejaculates, we must recognize that female-imposed physiological conditions often alter sperm phenotypes. These phenotypic changes may influence the relationships among sperm traits and their association with fitness. Here, we show that chemical substances released by eggs (known to modify sperm physiology and behaviour) alter patterns of selection on a suite of sperm traits in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. We use multivariate selection analyses to characterize linear and nonlinear selection acting on sperm traits in (a) seawater alone and (b) seawater containing egg-derived chemicals (egg water). Our analyses revealed that nonlinear selection on canonical axes of multiple traits (notably sperm velocity, sperm linearity and percentage of motile sperm) was the most important form of selection overall, but importantly these patterns were only evident when sperm phenotypes were measured in egg water. These findings reveal the subtle way that females can alter patterns of selection, with the implication that overlooking environmentally moderated changes to sperm, may result in erroneous interpretations of how selection targets phenotypic (co)variation in sperm traits.

Ocean acidification during prefertilization chemical communication affects sperm success

Ocean acidification (OA) poses a major threat to marine organisms, particularly during reproduction when externally shed gametes are vulnerable to changes in seawater pH. Accordingly, several studies on OA have focused on how changes in seawater pH influence sperm behavior and/or rates of in vitro fertilization. By contrast, few studies have examined how pH influences prefertilization gamete interactions, which are crucial during natural spawning events in most externally fertilizing taxa. One mechanism of gamete interaction that forms an important component of fertilization in most taxa is communication between sperm and egg-derived chemicals. These chemical signals, along with the physiological responses in sperm they elicit, are likely to be highly sensitive to changes in seawater chemistry. In this study, we experimentally tested this possibility using the blue mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis, a species in which females have been shown to use egg-derived chemicals to promote the success of sperm from genetically compatible males. We conducted trials in which sperm were allowed to swim in gradients of egg-derived chemicals under different seawater CO2 (and therefore pH) treatments. We found that sperm had elevated fertilization rates after swimming in the presence of egg-derived chemicals in low pH (pH 7.6) compared with ambient (pH 8.0) seawater. This observed effect could have important implications for the reproductive fitness of external fertilizers, where gamete compatibility plays a critical role in modulating reproduction in many species. For example, elevated sperm fertilization rates might disrupt the eggs' capacity to avoid fertilizations by genetically incompatible sperm. Our findings highlight the need to understand how OA affects the multiple stages of sperm-egg interactions and to develop approaches that disentangle the implications of OA for female, male, and population fitness.

Egg chemoattractants moderate intraspecific sperm competition

Interactions among eggs and sperm are often assumed to generate intraspecific variation in reproductive fitness, but the specific gamete-level mechanisms underlying competitive fertilization success remain elusive in most species. Sperm chemotaxis-the attraction of sperm by egg-derived chemicals-is a ubiquitous form of gamete signaling, occurring throughout the animal and plant kingdoms. The chemical cues released by eggs are known to act at the interspecific level (e.g., facilitating species recognition), but recent studies have suggested that they could have roles at the intraspecific level by moderating sperm competition. Here, we exploit the experimental tractability of a broadcast spawning marine invertebrate to test this putative mechanism of gamete-level sexual selection. We use a fluorescently labeled mitochondrial dye in mussels to track the real-time success of sperm as they compete to fertilize eggs, and provide the first direct evidence in any species that competitive fertilization success is moderated by differential sperm chemotaxis. Furthermore, our data are consistent with the idea that egg chemoattractants selectively attract ejaculates from genetically compatible males, based on relationships inferred from both nuclear and mitochondrial genetic markers. These findings for a species that exhibits the ancestral reproductive strategy of broadcast spawning have important implications for the numerous species that also rely on egg chemoattractants to attract sperm, including humans, and have potentially important implications for our understanding of the evolutionary cascade of sexual selection.

Sperm as moderators of environmentally induced paternal effects in a livebearing fish

Until recently, paternal effects-the influence of fathers on their offspring due to environmental factors rather than genes-were largely discarded or assumed to be confined to species exhibiting paternal care. It is now recognized that paternal effects can be transmitted through the ejaculate, but unambiguous evidence for them is scarce, because it is difficult to isolate effects operating via changes to the ejaculate from maternal effects driven by female mate assessment. Here, we use artificial insemination to disentangle mate assessment from fertilization in guppies, and show that paternal effects can be transmitted to offspring exclusively via ejaculates. We show that males fed reduced diets produce poor-quality sperm and that offspring sired by such males (via artificial insemination) exhibit reduced body size at birth. These findings may have important implications for the many mating systems in which environmentally induced changes in ejaculate quality have been reported.

Fluorescent sperm offer a method for tracking the real-time success of ejaculates when they compete to fertilise eggs

Despite intensive research effort, many uncertainties remain in the field of gamete-level sexual selection, particularly in understanding how sperm from different males interact when competing for fertilisations. Here, we demonstrate the utility of broadcast spawning marine invertebrates for unravelling these mysteries, highlighting their mode of reproduction and, in some species, unusual patterns of mitochondrial inheritance. We present a method utilising both properties in the blue mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis. In mytilids and many other bivalves, both sperm and egg mitochondria are inherited. We exploit this, using the vital mitochondrial dye MitoTracker, to track the success of sperm from individual males when they compete with those from rivals to fertilise eggs. We confirm that dying mitochondria has no adverse effects on in vitro measures of sperm motility (reflecting mitochondrial energetics) or sperm competitive fertilisation success. Therefore, we propose the technique as a powerful and logistically tractable tool for sperm competition studies. Importantly, our method allows the competitive fertilisation success of sperm from any male to be measured directly and disentangled from confounding effects of post-fertilisation embryo survival. Moreover, the mitochondrial dye has broader applications in taxa without paternal mitochondrial inheritance, for example by tracking the dynamics of competing ejaculates prior to fertilisation.

Genetic variation underlies temperature tolerance of embryos in the sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma armigera

Ocean warming can alter natural selection on marine systems, and in many cases, the long-term persistence of affected populations will depend on genetic adaptation. In this study, we assess the potential for adaptation in the sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma armigera, an Australian endemic, that is experiencing unprecedented increases in ocean temperatures. We used a factorial breeding design to assess the level of heritable variation in larval hatching success at two temperatures. Fertilized eggs from each full-sibling family were tested at 22 °C (current spawning temperature) and 25 °C (upper limit of predicted warming this century). Hatching success was significantly lower at higher temperatures, confirming that ocean warming is likely to exert selection on this life-history stage. Our analyses revealed significant additive genetic variance and genotype-by-environment interactions underlying hatching success. Consistent with prior work, we detected significant nonadditive (sire-by-dam) variance in hatching success, but additionally found that these interactions were modified by temperature. Although these findings suggest the potential for genetic adaptation, any evolutionary responses are likely to be influenced (and possibly constrained) by complex genotype-by-environment and sire-by-dam interactions and will additionally depend on patterns of genetic covariation with other fitness traits.