Variation of hair cortisol in two herds of migratory caribou (Rangifer tarandus): implications for health monitoring

Migratory caribou (Rangifer tarandus sspp.) is an ecotype of conservation concern that is experiencing increased cumulative stressors associated with rapid climate change and development in Arctic Canada. Increasingly, hair cortisol concentrations (HCCs) are being used to monitor seasonal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity of ungulate populations; yet, the effect of key covariates for caribou (sex, season, sampling source, body location) are largely unknown. The objectives of this research were 4-fold: first, we assessed the impact of body location (neck, rump) sampling sites on HCC; second, we assessed key covariates (sex, sampling method, season) impacting HCCs of caribou; third, we investigated inter-population (Dolphin and Union (DU), Bluenose-East (BNE)) and inter-annual differences in HCC and fourth, we examined the association between HCCs and indices of biting insect activity on the summer range (oestrid index, mosquito index). We examined hair from 407 DU and BNE caribou sampled by harvesters or during capture-collaring operations from 2012 to 2020. Linear mixed-effect models were used to assess the effect of body location on HCC and generalized least squares regression (GLS) models were used to examine the impacts of key covariates, year and herd and indices of biting insect harassment. HCC varied significantly by body location, year, herd and source of samples (harvester vs capture). HCC was higher in samples taken from the neck and in the DU herd compared with the BNE, decreased linearly over time and was higher in captured versus hunted animals (P < 0.05). There was no difference in HCC between sexes, and indices of biting insect harassment in the previous year were not significantly associated with HCC. This study identifies essential covariates impacting the HCC of caribou that must be accounted for in sampling, monitoring and data interpretation.

Multi-pathogen serological survey of migratory caribou herds: A snapshot in time

Pathogens can impact host survival, fecundity, and population dynamics even when no obvious disease is observed. Few baseline data on pathogen prevalence and diversity of caribou are available, which hampers our ability to track changes over time and evaluate impacts on caribou health. Archived blood samples collected from ten migratory caribou herds in Canada and two in Greenland were used to test for exposure to pathogens that have the potential to effect population productivity, are zoonotic or are emerging. Relationships between seroprevalence and individual, population, and other health parameters were also examined. For adult caribou, the highest overall seroprevalence was for alphaherpesvirus (49%, n = 722), pestivirus (49%, n = 572) and Neospora caninum (27%, n = 452). Lower seroprevalence was found for parainfluenza virus type 3 (9%, n = 708), Brucella suis (2%, n = 758), and Toxoplasma gondii (2%, n = 706). No animal tested positive for antibodies against West Nile virus (n = 418) or bovine respiratory syncytial virus (n = 417). This extensive multi-pathogen survey of migratory caribou herds provides evidence that caribou are exposed to pathogens that may have impacts on herd health and revealed potential interactions between pathogens as well as geographical differences in pathogen exposure that could be linked to the bio-geographical history of caribou. Caribou are a keystone species and the socio-economic cornerstone of many indigenous cultures across the North. The results from this study highlight the urgent need for a better understanding of pathogen diversity and the impact of pathogens on caribou health.

Experimental Life-Cycle of Varestrongylus eleguneniensis (Nematoda: Protostrongylidae) in a Captive Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) and a Muskox (Ovibos moschatus moschatus)

The life-cycle of a recently described protostrongylid lungworm, Varestrongylus eleguneniensis, which infects caribou, muskoxen, and moose from Arctic and boreal regions of North America, was completed experimentally for the first time. A native North American slug species, Deroceras laeve, was infected with the first-stage larvae (L1) isolated from the feces of wild muskoxen to generate third-stage larvae (L3). These were administered to a captive reindeer calf (250 L3) and an adult captive muskox (380 L3). The prepatent periods for the reindeer and muskox were 56 and 72 days, respectively. Patency lasted for only 19 days in the reindeer, and fecal larval counts were very low (0.09-1.53 larvae per gram of feces). Patency in the muskox was at least 210 days, and likely over 653 days, and the fecal larval counts were higher (0.06-17.8 larvae per gram of feces). This work provides the first experimental completion of the life-cycle of V. eleguneniensis.

Global warming is changing the dynamics of Arctic host-parasite systems

Global climate change is altering the ecology of infectious agents and driving the emergence of disease in people, domestic animals, and wildlife. We present a novel, empirically based, predictive model for the impact of climate warming on development rates and availability of an important parasitic nematode of muskoxen in the Canadian Arctic, a region that is particularly vulnerable to climate change. Using this model, we show that warming in the Arctic may have already radically altered the transmission dynamics of this parasite, escalating infection pressure for muskoxen, and that this trend is expected to continue. This work establishes a foundation for understanding responses to climate change of other host-parasite systems, in the Arctic and globally.

Pathogens of domestic and free-ranging ungulates: global climate change in temperate to boreal latitudes across North America

In North America broad-based research networks explore the interaction of vertebrates, their characteristic arrays of pathogens and emergent disease. A diversity of programmes address the impact of environmental change on animal health, zoonoses, and human health, but as yet no comprehensive framework or strategy has emerged to develop and implement policy and planning. In a regime of climate change and ecological perturbation, the need to document and understand the health, agricultural, societal and economic impact of pathogens and emerging infectious disease is urgent. An integrated and proactive planning process linking national and international resources can lead to informed predictions aboutthe impact of environmental change and can identify pathways for potential management and mitigation. An effective and comprehensive programme will have components for establishing priorities, developing primary data for faunal structure and biodiversity, a capacity for monitoring and surveillance (including scanning and targeted activities), and linkage to historical and contemporary baselines (against which to assess change) established through archival biological collections. Field and laboratory studies are also necessary to determine developmental thresholds, tolerances and tipping points for many pathogens to establish a context for recognising current constraints and future perturbation, and to explore factors that promote emergence for a variety of pathogens, vectors and pest species. Predictive modelling and risk assessment utilising a range of scenarios for climate change is a final step in this multidisciplinary process.

Protostrongylid parasites and pneumonia in captive and wild thinhorn sheep (Ovis dalli)

We describe health significance of protostrongylid parasites (Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei and Protostrongylus stilesi) and other respiratory pathogens in more than 50 naturally infected Dall's sheep (Ovis dalli dalli) from the Mackenzie Mountains, Northwest Territories (1998-2002) as well as in three Stone's sheep (O. d. stonei) experimentally infected with P. odocoilei (2000-2002). Histological lesions in the brain and distribution of P. odocoilei in the muscles of experimentally and naturally infected sheep were consistent with a previously hypothesized "central nervous system to muscle" pattern of migration for P. odocoilei. Dimensions of granulomas associated with eggs of P. odocoilei and density of protostrongylid eggs and larvae in the cranial lung correlated with intensity of larvae in feces, and all varied with season of collection. Prevalence of P. stilesi based on the presence of larvae in feces underestimated true prevalence (based on examination of lungs) in wild Dall's sheep collected in summer and fall. Similarly, counts of both types of protostrongylid larvae in feces were unreliable indicators of parasitic infection in wild Dall's sheep with concomitant bacterial pneumonia associated with Arcanobacterium pyogenes, Pasteurella sp., and Mannheimia sp. Diffuse, interstitial pneumonia due to P. odocoilei led to fatal pulmonary hemorrhage and edema after exertion in one experimentally infected Stone's sheep and one naturally infected Dall's sheep. Bacterial and verminous pneumonia associated with pathogens endemic in wild Dall's sheep in the Mackenzie Mountains caused sporadic mortalities. There was no evidence of respiratory viruses or bacterial strains associated with domestic ruminants, from which this population of wild sheep has been historically isolated.

Bionomics of larvae of Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei (Nematoda: Protostrongylidae) in experimentally infected gastropod intermediate hosts

Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei is a protostrongylid parasite that has recently been recognized at several locations in sub-Arctic, but not Arctic, North America. We investigated factors that may determine the distribution of P. odocoilei, including suitable gastropod intermediate hosts, temperature requirements for larval development in gastropods, and larval emergence facilitating overwinter transmission. We collected and experimentally infected gastropods from a site in the sub-Arctic where P. odocoilei is at the northern limit of its distribution. Deroceras laeve, Catinella sp., and Euconulus cf fulvus, but not members of the Pupillidae, were suitable intermediate hosts. We describe bionomics of larvae of P. odocoilei in D. laeve and Catinella sp. Infective larvae emerged from all slugs (D. laeve) and 60% of Catinella sp. snails, and emergence from D. laeve was intensity dependent. Emerged infective larvae survived up to 6 mo under conditions approximating that of the subnivean environment. In D. laeve, there was a direct relationship between temperature and development rate of larvae of P. odocoilei. Larvae of P. odocoilei did not develop to infective stage below the theoretical threshold (8.5 C), and required a minimum of 163 degree days to complete development. These developmental parameters can be incorporated into a model to predict larval development in the field. Knowledge of the factors influencing larval bionomics provides the foundation for predicting temporal and spatial patterns of parasite distribution, abundance, and transmission.

Climate change and the epidemiology of protostrongylid nematodes in northern ecosystems:Parelaphostrongylus odocoileiandProtostrongylus stilesiin Dall's sheep (Ovis d. dalli)

We describe the epidemiology of the protostrongylid parasitesParelaphostrongylus odocoileiandProtostrongylus stilesiin Dall's sheep (Ovis dalli dalli) from the Mackenzie Mountains, Northwest Territories, Canada (65 °N; 128 °W). Peak numbers of 1st-stage larvae of both parasites were shed by Dall's sheep on their winter range from March until May. In larval development experiments in the Mackenzie Mountains, peak numbers of infective 3rd-stage larvae ofP. odocoileiwere available in gastropod intermediate hosts in August–September. For both protostrongylids, the majority of transmission likely occurs on the winter range, with infection of gastropods when they emerge from hibernation in spring, and infection of Dall's sheep upon their return in fall. We validated a degree-day model for temperature-dependent development of larvalP. odocoileiin gastropods, and applied degree-day models to describe and predict spatial and temporal patterns in development ofP. odocoileiandP. stilesiin northern North America. Temperature-dependent larval development may currently limit northward range expansion ofP. odocoileiinto naïve populations of Dall's sheep in the Arctic, but climate warming may soon eliminate such constraints. In Subarctic regions where bothP. odocoileiandP. stilesiare endemic, the length of the parasite ‘growing season’ (when temperatures were above the threshold for larval development) and amount of warming available for parasite development has increased over the last 50 years. Further climate warming and extension of the seasonal window for transmission may lead to amplification of parasite populations and disease outbreaks in host populations.

New host and geographic records for two protostrongylids in Dall's sheep

Biodiversity survey and inventory have resulted in new information on the distribution of Protostrongylidae in Dall's sheep (Ovis dalli dalli) from the Northwest Territories (NT, Canada) and from Alaska (AK, USA). In 1998, Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei adults were found for the first time in the skeletal muscles of Dall's sheep in the Mackenzie Mountains (NT). Adult P. odocoilei were associated with petechial and ecchymotic hemorrhages and localized myositis; eggs and larvae in the lungs were associated with diffuse granulomatous pneumonia. Experimental infections of the slugs Deroceras laeve and Deroceras reticulatum with dorsal-spined first-stage larvae assumed to be P. odocoilei, from ground-collected feces from Dall's sheep in the Mackenzie Mountains, yielded third-stage larvae by at least 28 (in D. laeve) and 48 (in D. reticulatum) days post-infection. Third-stage larvae emerged from D. laeve between days 19 and 46 post-infection and emergence occurred both at room temperature and at 10 to 12 C. Protostrongylus stilesi were definitively identified from the lungs of Dall's sheep collected in the Mackenzie Mountains, NT in 1998. Specimens collected from sheep in the Mackenzie Mountains, NT in 1971-72, and the Alaska Range, AK in 1972 were also confirmed as P. stilesi. Lung pathology associated with adults, eggs, and larvae of P. stilesi was similar to that described in bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis). Concurrent infections with P. odocoilei and P. stilesi in a single host have not been previously reported.

A new lungworm in muskoxen: an exploration in Arctic parasitology

Ruminants are vital elements of the Holarctic ecosystem. Little is known, however, of the structure or biology of their parasite fauna, particularly in North America. Global warming, coupled with increasing human activity in the Arctic, requires enhanced international interdisciplinary efforts to better understand the many factors, including parasites, that influence the population health of caribou, reindeer, muskoxen and wild sheep. The discovery of an unusual new genus of protostrongylid lung nematode in muskoxen from the central Canadian Arctic is described, and the intricacies of the parasite's relationship with its muskoxen definitive hosts, its gastropod intermediate hosts and the arctic environment are discussed.

Umingmakstrongylus pallikuukensis (Nematoda: Protostrongylidae) in gastropods: larval morphology, morphometrics, and development rates

Morphological and morphometric aspects of larval development of Umingmakstrongylus pallikuukensis in Deroceras laeve and the effects of temperature on development rates in D. laeve and Deroceras reticulatum were investigated in the laboratory. Larval stages were best differentiated by separation of cuticular sheaths, tail structure, and viability following digestion. Growth in body and esophagus width was observed during the first-stage within the intermediate host, but the major increases in body length and width occurred immediately following the second molt. Larval development in D. laeve and D. reticulatum occurred more rapidly at warmer temperatures. The calculated threshold temperatures were 8.5 and 9.5 C in D. laeve and D. reticulatum, respectively, and 167 degree-days were required for development to third-stage larvae (L3) in both hosts. These thresholds are higher than those calculated from published data for the closely related Muellerius capillaris (4.2 C) but are similar to those for the more distantly related northern protostrongylid, Elaphostrongylus rangiferi (8.3-10.3 C). Conversely, degree-days required for development to infective L3 were more similar among the Muelleriinae than between this group and the Elaphostrongylinae. Developmental parameters for protostrongylid larvae may be influenced both by the environment and by features of the parasites and the intermediate hosts, including phylogeny.

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) from the Canadian Arctic

Prevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii was determined in 147 barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) from 5 herds in the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, northern Canada, by the modified agglutination test (MAT). In the mainland herds (Bluenose, Bathurst, and Beverly), antibodies were found in 43 (37%) of 117 caribou, and MAT titers were 1:25 in 10, 1:50 in 24, and 1:500 in 9. In the island herds, only 1 (4.3%) of 23 animals sampled from the North Baffin Island herd was positive (titer = 1:25) and no antibodies were detected in 7 caribou from the Dolphin and Union herd. The high prevalence of antibodies to T. gondii in the mainland caribou herds indicates that caribou meat may contain viable T. gondii.

Emergence of third-stage larvae of Umingmakstrongylus pallikuukensis from three gastropod intermediate host species

We investigated the emergence of third-stage larvae (L3) of Umingmakstrongylus pallikuukensis from the slugs Deroceras laeve, Deroceras reticulatum, and the snail Catinella sp. in the laboratory and from D. laeve on the tundra. Third-stage larvae emerged from 8 of 8 D. laeve and 8 of 8 D. reticulatum housed at 20 C in darkness and from 9 of 10 D. laeve and 5 of 5 Catinella sp. housed at 21 C with 10-12 hr of light/day. Larvae emerged from D. laeve and D. reticulatum over a wide range of infection intensities (2-179 and 20-65, respectively), and the patterns of emergence were independent of intensity. The majority of the L3 emerged from most of the Deroceras spp. by 58 or 60 days postinfection (PI). Lower rates of emergence were observed from Catinella sp. Larvae emerged from D. laeve on the tundra by 10 wk PI and were recovered from the vegetation in some experimental enclosures the following year. Third-stage larvae survived in tap and distilled water at 0-4 C for 13 mo. Emergence of L3 of U. pallikuukensis from the intermediate host may increase the temporal and spatial availability of L3 and enhance their survival and transmission.

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in muskox (Ovibos moschatus) sera from northern Canada

Prevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii was determined in 203 muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) from 3 geographically distinct areas of northern Canada (near the hamlets of Kugluktuk and Cambridge Bay, Nunavut and Holman, Northwest Territories) by the modified agglutination test (MAT). Antibodies were found in 13 (6.4%) of 203 animals with MAT titers of 1:25 in 2, 1:50 in 7, 1:200 in 2, 1:400 in 1, and 1:800 in 1. The 4 muskoxen with MAT titers > or =1:200 were adult females and were among 10 animals examined from a mainland population near Kugluktuk. The seroprevalence was lower in Victoria Island muskoxen collected near Cambridge Bay (4.6% of 151) and Holman (4.8% of 42). This is the first serologic survey for T. gondii infection in muskoxen.

Trace mineral and vitamin concentrations in the liver and serum of wild muskoxen from Victoria Island

Selected trace minerals and vitamins were assayed in the liver and serum of 25 wild muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) from Victoria Island, (Nunavut, Canada) in November, 1995. Mean +/- SE liver concentrations in micromol/kg wet weight were 260+/-16 for copper; 1.04+/-0.06 for selenium; 11.5+/-0.7 for molybdenum and 62.8+/-3.3 for vitamin E. Mean +/- SE serum concentrations in micromol/L were 14.2+/-0.3 for copper; 0.75+/-0.04 for selenium, 1.53+/-0.07 for vitamin A and 5.80+/-0.55 for vitamin E. Comparison of liver and serum concentrations of copper, selenium and vitamin E showed that the concentration in one tissue was a relatively poor indicator of the concentration in the other. The copper-molybdenum interaction often seen in domestic species was not observed. In general, the concentrations of metals and vitamins found in muskoxen were comparable to those in other ungulates although serum vitamin E concentrations were about one-fourth of those expected.

Experimental infections of muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) and domestic sheep with Umingmakstrongylus pallikuukensis (Nematoda: Protostrongylidae): parasite development, population structure, and pathology

Three captive muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) were successfully infected with third-stage larvae of Umingmakstrongylus pallikuukensis digested or emerged from the slugs Deroceras reticulatum and D. laeve, for the first time completing the life cycle of this parasite under experimental conditions. The course of parasite development and patency was followed for 26 months post infection (p.i.) using fecal examinations and radiography. The prepatent periods in two of the muskoxen were 91 and 95 days and the patent period in one extended for 23 months. Larval production peaked 13-14 months p.i. On postmortem of two of the muskoxen at months 14 and 26 p.i., adult parasites were found only within pulmonary cysts and cysts were randomly distributed between left and right lungs. Cyst dimensions were positively correlated with the number of adult parasites they contained. On postmortem of the third muskox at day 97 p.i., not all adult parasites were within typical cysts; two were found free in interlobular septa. First-stage larvae were recovered from lung cysts of this animal but not from feces. Lung pathology in all three muskoxen appeared localized and associated with the adult nematodes. Infection of two sheep with third-stage larvae of U. pallikuukensis did not result in parasite establishment.

A lung nematode in Canadian Arctic muskoxen. Standard radiographic and computed tomographic imaging

Medical imaging was used before death to follow the development of U. pallikuukensis infection in muskoxen and postmortem to investigate the distribution and characteristics of parasite-associated pulmonary cysts. In two experimentally infected animals, lesions were not visible radiographically until days 178 and 191 PI, 3 months after the parasites became patent. Serial radiographs taken throughout the period of patency of one animal showed an initial increase in lesion size by day 415 PI, but by day 789 PI, lesions had stabilized or decreased in size. Although all lesions detected postmortem were not visible radiographically during life, the radiographs did provide an indication of the relative severity of infection. In contrast to other parasitic pneumonias, there was no evidence of pulmonary disease outside of the discrete parasitic cysts. Radiographs of lungs postmortem proved to be an effective tool for locating parasitic cysts in a lightly infected muskox and demonstrated a bronchovascular cyst distribution. Postmortem CT provided a more rapid and detailed assessment of the number, size, and distribution of cysts in the lungs of one muskox.

Psychotherapeutic aspects of the martial arts

Formerly understood by Western thought as only a set of fighting skills, the Martial Arts (MAs) have come to be seen, in the psychological literature about the MAs, as a comprehensive approach to both physical and mental health. The MAs enhance self-esteem through the provision of physical activity and group experience, and the teaching of relaxation, concentration, assertiveness, and directiveness and honesty in communication. Thus, they are understood to be a legitimate form of therapy, for both "neurotic" and some chronically mentally ill patients. It is proposed in this paper, that the MAs can also be a useful supplement to verbal psychotherapy, as they foster and expose feelings through a physical modality, which can then be observed and analyzed in the modality of verbal psychotherapy. A case report illustrates how the MAs produce feelings and reveal problems, which are brought into the psychotherapy arena and analyzed.