Determination of some enzymes and macro- and microelements in stallion seminal plasma and their correlations to semen quality

Seminal plasma is very important for sperm metabolism as well as sperm function and survival and transport in the female genital tract. Analysis of enzyme activities and concentrations of elements can estimate integrity and function of sperm cell membranes. In man much data are available about biochemical analyses of seminal plasma. However, not many studies have been conducted in horses yet. We collected ejaculates from 72 stallions, measured the volume, obtained seminal plasma by centrifugation and examined spermatozoa with light microscopy for motility, concentration, for dead sperm and morphology. Of seminal plasma fluid, we measured activities of aspartate-amino-transferase (AST), gamma-glutamyl-transferase (GGT), alkaline phosphatase (AlP), acid phosphatase (AcP) and lactate-dehydrogenase (LDH) as well as concentrations of sodium (Na(+)), potassium (K(+)), total and ionised calcium (Ca(TOTAL)/Ca(2+)), magnesium (Mg(2+)), phosphate (P), chloride (Cl), copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn). In addition, correlations among different parameters in light microscopy and seminal plasma were statistically examined by using the Spearman rank correlation coefficient. Median enzyme activities for AST, GGT, AlP, AcP and LDH were 80.0, 7,500, 30,200, 20.0, 81.0 IU/L, respectively. Concentrations of Na(+), K(+), Ca(TOTAL), Ca(2+), Mg(2+), P, Cl were 110.5, 22.1, 2.9, 1.7, 3.1, 1.1 and 114.5 mmol/L, and of microelements Cu, Fe and Zn were 17.8, 1.9 and 13.2 micromol/L, respectively. Furthermore, we found significant correlations between semen volume as well as sperm concentration and AST, GGT, AlP, AcP and LDH as well as Fe and Zn. This made us propose a primary testicular and epididymal origin of these parameters. Significant correlation between GGT and motility may be a sign for its function for cell protection against free radicals. LDH activity significantly correlates with motility and progressive motility, live:dead-ratio and pathomorphology. In our study, LDH seems to be the most predictive enzyme for semen quality. This is the first report about GGT, AcP and LDH activities as well as iron in equine seminal plasma.

Expression of Oestrogen Receptors alpha and beta and of Aromatase in the Testis of Immature and Mature Boars

The boar testis secretes high amounts of oestrogens. In order to test for a likely local significance, we investigated the expression of oestrogen receptors (ER) in immature and mature boar testes using immunohistochemistry (IHC), in vitro and in situ reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Samples were from 25 boars castrated at ages of 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 days. Mouse monoclonal primary antibodies against porcine ERalpha (clone HT227), human ERbeta1 (clone PPG5/10) and human P450 aromatase (clone SM1671P) were used. Expression of the mRNA was tested utilizing primers specific for the respective porcine mRNA sequences. ER immunoreactivity was exclusively localized to the nuclei. In immature boars, 90.6 +/- 1.2% of prespermatogonia and 71.0 +/- 2.6% of the Leydig cells showed a strong staining for ERalpha; 95.5 +/- 3.5% of the prespermatogonia but none of the Leydig and Sertoli cells were ERbeta-positive. In mature boars a strong staining for the ERbeta was observed in virtually all Sertoli, Leydig and germ cells, except for the elongating/ed spermatids, which were clearly negative; for the ERalpha, strong immunoreaction signals were restricted to spermatogonia and primary spermatocytes with 93.6 +/- 2.7% of these cells being positive; distinctly less intensive signals were observed in 51.4 +/- 0.27% of the secondary spermatocytes, round spermatids and Leydig cells. In vitro RT-PCR was positive for both receptors and results of in situ RT-PCR matched those obtained by IHC. P450 aromatase immunoreaction was restricted to the cytoplasm of Leydig cells. These findings suggest that testicular ER may be important factors contributing to onset and maintenance of spermatogenesis in the boar.

Structure of mammalian spermatozoa in respect to viability, fertility and cryopreservation

Morphological assessment of spermatozoa has a long history and it is generally accepted that specific morphologic structural deviations correlate with male sub- and infertility. Although many different and also new methods are used in semen analysis, light microscopy is still used for routine morphological evaluation. This paper gives an overview about the detailed structure of physiological mammalian spermatozoa as well as the most common morphological deviations in correlation to fertility. This should be the basis for explanation of problems resulting from semen cryopreservation. General aspects of semen cryopreservation should be regarded before to facilitate the understanding of methods and mechanisms.

New insights into the genetic diversity of European porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV)

The complete ORF5 sequences of 66 porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) field virus strains (1991-2001) and three European modified live vaccine strains were determined, as well as ORFs 6 and 7 of 19 selected strains. The variability of the deduced ORF5 amino acid sequences was analysed using statistical process control (SPC), allowing for the objective assessment of variable and conserved regions. Four variable and four conserved regions as well as five hypervariable amino acid positions were defined. The effects of genetic variability on possible structural and functional properties were discussed with emphasis on immunogenic features. Phylogenetic analysis and pairwise comparison of the nucleotide sequences revealed that the genetic distances between the strains has greatly increased over time. The data do not support an evolutionary influence of the geographical location or the time of sample collection, nor of PRRSV vaccination on strain development. In contrast to other authors who tended to concentrate on the samples from either a common geographic origin or a short sampling period, we could not confirm geographically separate PRRSV clusters nor did we find evidence of positive selective pressure as measured by the ratio of synonymous to non-synonymous substitutions in ORF5, 6 or 7. Immunological implications and vaccination strategies are discussed.

Isolation and characterization of porcine circovirus type 2 from pigs showing signs of post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome in The Netherlands

Pigs with wasting syndrome were examined for macroscopic and histopathological lesions, and for porcine circovirus (PCV). Histopathological lesions were comparable to those previously documented for post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS). In addition, in seven out of ten examined PMWS-affected pigs focal-to-slight mononuclear meningitis and focal cerebral mononuclear infiltrates (4 out of 10) were observed. A virus was isolated from organs and sera from pigs showing wasting syndrome. An immunoperoxidase monolayer assay and an indirect immunofluorescence assay were performed on the infected PK-15 and Dulac cell cultures, respectively, and both assays indicated the presence of PCV type 2 (PCV2). The nested-polymerase chain reaction (nPCR) technique, based on the use of PCV2 specific oligonucleotides, revealed specific amplified products of 481 bp. Nucleotide sequence analysis of the entire genome of the Dutch PCV isolate 24657 NL showed a homology with known nucleotide sequences of porcine PCV type 1 (PCV1) and PCV2 isolates of 77.1% and >96%, respectively. This is the first report of the isolation and characterization of PCV2 in PMWS-affected pigs in the Netherlands.

Variation in resistance to the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) in Pietrain and Miniature pigs

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) is one of the economically most important diseases of swine. Viraemia and the prolonged persistence of the virus are among the most critical factors. Virus replication and severity of disease vary with virus isolates, and there is rising evidence for a genetic component of the host susceptibility. Dissecting the genetic basis of resistance/susceptibility to PRRS virus (PRRSV) might lead to improved knowledge on the molecular mechanisms of PRRS and the establishment of genetic markers for future disease control. The aim of this study was to establish a porcine model with emphasized genetic differences in PRRSV susceptibility. Seven 'Wiesenauer Miniature' pigs (MI), a local German breed and eight commercial Pietrain (PI) pigs were challenged with 10(5) TCID(50) of an attenuated PRRSV strain (Ingelvac PRRSV MLV). Clinical status, viraemia and seroconversion of the pigs were compared. No clinical signs were observed during the experiment. Viraemia peaked on day 6 p.i., with 100% of viraemic pigs in PI and on day 12 p.i with 87% of viraemic MI. Viraemia lasted for up to 35 days in MI and for at least 72 days in PI. This surprising result was confirmed by a second study with another four MI. MI and PI showed maximum virus titres of 10(2.5) TCID(50)/ml of serum and 10(4.5) TCID(50)/ml, respectively, indicating a virus replication in MI of approximately 3.3% that of PI over the complete period. MI were more efficient in antibody production. With such pronounced breed differences, the model is of high relevance for the genetic dissection of PRRS pathogenesis and susceptibility.

Expression of connexin 43 in normal canine testes and canine testicular tumors

In human testis, gap junctions containing connexin(Cx)43 are located within the seminiferous epithelium between Sertoli cells and between Sertoli and germ cells. Cx43 is known to play a role in the differentiation and proliferation of these cell types. It can further be associated with human seminoma development. The dog has been proposed as a model for studies of the male reproductive system, because of the frequent occurrence of testicular neoplasms. Thus, we investigated Cx43-mRNA and -protein expression in testes of normal prepubertal dogs, adult dogs, and in canine testicular tumors. Sertoli cells in prepubertal cords express Cx43 mRNA, but do synthesize only less Cx43 protein. Within the seminiferous tubules, Cx43 mRNA was detected in Sertoli cells, spermatogonia, and spermatocytes. Cx43 protein was mainly present in the basal compartment. In canine testicular tumors Cx43 mRNA was detectable in both seminoma and neoplastic Sertoli cells, whereas Cx43 protein was only found in neoplastic Sertoli cells. Our data indicate that Cx43 is regulated differentially in testicular tumors and that alterations of Cx43 expression may be involved in the pathogenesis of canine testicular malignancies. This study represents the first morphological work on the spatiotemporal expression pattern of Cx43 in normal and neoplastic canine testis.

Advanced fertility diagnosis in stallion semen using transmission electron microscopy

Routine semen analysis of stallions is based on light microscopy (LM). However, there are still a number of animals that are subfertile or even infertile not being identified with conventional semen analysis. The objective of this study was to investigate the suitability of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for advanced fertility diagnosis in stallion. We examined ejaculates of 46 stallions with known fertility. Animals were divided into three different groups: group 1, fertile stallions (pregnant mares> or =70%, n=29); group 2, subfertile stallions (pregnant mares 10-69%, n=14); group 3, infertile stallions (pregnant mares<10%, n=3). Ejaculates were collected in spring 2002. Conventional semen analysis (volume, sperm concentration, motility, live:dead ratio and percentage of morphologically normal sperm) was immediately performed after semen collection. Ultrastructural analysis included the evaluation of 200 acrosomes, heads, midpieces and cross-sections of tails as well as 100 longitudinal sections of tails from every ejaculate. Using LM, we found a significant increase of morphological deviations from 24.5% (x ) in group 1 to 34.5% in group 2 and 73.5% in group 3. Using TEM, we found a significant increase of detached acrosomes from 6.1% in group 1 to 7.6% in group 2 and 21.4% in group 3. Deviations in tubule pattern were also increased (but not significant) from 2.7% in fertile and 2.8% in subfertile to 11.4% in infertile stallions as well as multiple tails from 1.9% in fertile to 2.0% in subfertile and 8.9% in infertile. Our data indicate that TEM is suitable for advanced fertility diagnostic in stallions, giving a connection between fertility and morphology. It suggests that the most likely reason for sub- and infertility in stallion in case of increased LM pathomorphology of semen are acrosomal alterations, especially detached acrosomes.

High risk of false positive results in a widely used diagnostic test for detection of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV)

During 2003 and 2004, increasing numbers of positive PRRSV RT-PCR results were reported from herds negative for PRRSV infection. Interestingly, three herds represent nucleus herds with no animal contacts from outside and without clinical symptoms of PRRS until now. Since these positive results that were obtained using a PCR protocol adapted to routine laboratory conditions could not be reproduced with other PRRSV specific RT-PCRs, controlled negative and positive samples were used to examine this phenomenon. A RT-PCR assay for detection and differential diagnosis of the European and North American genotypes of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) according to the method previously published by Oleksiewicz et al. [Oleksiewicz, M.B., Botner, A., Madsen, K.G., Storgaard, T., 1998. Sensitive detection and typing of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus by RT-PCR amplification of whole viral genes. Vet. Microbiol. 64, 7-22] was investigated in parallel to another recently published method [Pesch, S., 2003. Etablierung einer Nachweismethode für die zwei Genotypen von dem porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) und ein Beitrag zu seiner molekularen Epidemiologie. Thesis, Institute of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig]. A panel of 228 clinical samples sent in for PRRSV routine diagnostics served as test panel. It was found that both methods have similar analytical sensitivity. However, the primers published by Oleksiewicz were shown to yield a very high proportion of false positive results under routine diagnostic laboratory conditions, i.e. they resulted in RT-PCR products with non-PRRSV sequences, that were indistinguishable from truly positive reagents in standard gel electrophoresis settings. The reason for and possible implications of this finding as well as the risk of modifying published methods without control are discussed.

Field study on swine influenza virus (SIV) infection in weaner pigs and sows

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this field study was to explore the occurrence of and factors associated with the detection of swine influenza virus (SIV) by RTqPCR in weaner pigs and sows from herds with a history of respiratory or reproductive disorders.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The sample set was based on nasal swabs from 823 sows (123 submissions) and 562 weaner pigs (80 submissions). Nasal swab samples were taken and submitted by 51 veterinary practices from all over Germany. Corresponding to the pig density most of the submissions originated from the north-western part of Germany. The nasal swabs were used to detect SIV RNA by real-time RT-PCR (RTqPCR). Subtyping of SIV RNA by conventional RT-PCR and sequencing was attempted directly from clinical samples or from isolates when available. The herd characteristics, management and housing conditions of the pig herd as well as the course of the disease were collected by a telephone questionnaire with the herd attending veterinarian.

RESULTS

SIV was detected by RTqPCR in 53.8% of the submissions from weaner pigs with a history of respiratory disease. Moreover SIV was detected in 10.6% of the submissions from sows. The predominant endemic subtype found in nasal swabs from sows and weaner pigs was H1N1 (60.5%) whereas subtypes H1N2 (14.0%) and H3N2 (14.0%) were detected less frequently. In addition, human pandemic H1N1 virus or reassortants thereof were found in 11.5%.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The results underline the significance of a SIV infection in young pigs. A significant lower detection of SIV in wea- ner pigs was associated with the vaccination of piglets against por- cine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), possibly indicating an interaction of SIV and PCV2. Most of the positive samples from sows originated from gilts, whereas only two originated from sows. An association between reproductive disorders and the detection of SIV could not be confirmed.

Samengewinnung, -konservierung und künstliche Besamung beim Hund

Die künstliche Besamung ist ein inzwischen auch beim Hund etabliertes Verfahren. Zum Einsatz kommen Frischsperma bzw. flüssig- und gefrierkonserviertes Sperma. Das Ejakulat wird durch manuelle Stimulation, bevorzugt in Anwesenheit einer läufigen Hündin, fraktioniert gewonnen, wobei zur Herstellung von flüssig- bzw. gefrierkonserviertem Sperma ausschließlich die spermienreiche Fraktion verwendet werden sollte. Die Verdünnung erfolgt üblicherweise mit einem Tris-Eidotter-Puffer mit einem Antibiotikazusatz bei flüssigkonserviertem Sperma, für die Herstellung von Tiefgefriersperma wird Glyzerin zugesetzt. Entscheidend für den Besamungserfolg ist die Wahl des Besamungszeitpunktes, insbesondere bei Verwendung von Tiefgefriersperma. Vaginalzytologie und Vaginoskopie sollten mit einer Progesteronbestimmung verbunden sein, um den für die Samenübertragung optimalen Bereich um 12 ng/ml Plasma zu definieren. Derzeit kommen vier Inseminationstechniken zur Anwendung: die tief intravaginale Besamung, die transzervikale-intrauterine Besamung mithilfe eines starren Katheters unter transabdominaler Fixation der Zervix, die transzervikale-intrauterine Besamung unter endoskopischer Kontrolle sowie die chirurgische intrauterine Besamung via Laparotomie/Laparoskopie. Bei der Verwendung von Tiefgefriersperma sollte grundsätzlich die intrauterine Samendeponierung angestrebt werden. Als Besamungsdosis werden, unabhängig von der Art des Inseminats, mindestens 150 × 106 vorwärtsbewegliche Spermien empfohlen. Unter optimalen Voraussetzungen können mit der künstlichen Besamung auch beim Einsatz von kryokonserviertem Sperma mit dem natürlichen Deckakt vergleichbare Trächtigkeitsraten und Wurfgrößen erzielt werden.

Plasminogen hemizygosity. Detection of a silent allele in 7 members of a family by determination of plasminogen phenotypes, antigenic levels, and functional activity

The accumulation of the homozygous plasminogen (PLG) variant A3 in 4 siblings of a family led to the detection of 5 cases of apparent inverse homozygosity of PLG phenotypes which seemed to exclude paternity. Determination of 22 blood group markers and HLA typing, but under exclusion of PLG phenotypes, confirmed paternity in all cases (biostatistical probability of paternity greater than 99.9985%). Comparing the results of 'Western blots' with functional-caseinolytic phenotyping, the existence of inactive plasmin, as described earlier, could be excluded. Besides inverse homozygosity the assumption of a silent allele was confirmed by reduction of PLG antigenic levels and functional activities to approximately 50% of normal range. The PLG phenotype A in 1 individual with anamnestic thrombosis, reduced values of PLG antigen, and reduced functional activity, although in accordance with Mendelian inheritance, was also considered as indicative for PLG hemizygosity.

Prospective outcome analysis following tenodesis of the long head of the biceps tendon along with locking plate osteosynthesis for proximal humerus fractures

BACKGROUND

Fractures of the proximal humerus are often associated with lesions of the long head of the biceps (LHB) tendon. This often leads to prolonged shoulder pain. Hence, many surgeons decide to perform a tenodesis of the LHB tendon simultaneous to ORIF. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the postoperative outcome after interlocking plate fixation and biceps tenodesis for treating proximal humerus fractures.

METHODS

56 patients (38 females, 18 male) suffering from proximal humerus fractures who underwent surgery were retrospectively included. 26 of these 56 patients (19% Neer II, 38% Neer III, 43% Neer IV) were treated with simultaneous tenodesis of the LHB tendon when ORIF using interlocking plate fixation was performed. 30 patients (17% Neer II, 40% Neer III, 43% Neer IV) served as control group receiving only interlocking plate fixation. The patients were asked to complete the Munich Shoulder Questionnaire (MSQ) for evaluation of postoperative shoulder function. Results of the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) Score and Shoulder Pain and Disability Index (SPADI) were calculated from the MSQ. Patients were clinically evaluated for a positive O'Brien test and Popeye sign.

RESULTS

The tenodesis group demonstrated significant superior outcome regarding the MSQ (mean 90.47 points vs. 79.41 points, p = 0.006), DASH Score (mean 4.2 points vs. 16.81 points, p = 0.017) and SPADI (mean 94.59 points vs. 83.56, p = 0.045). Flexion, external rotation and the capability of throwing a soft ball were significantly improved in the tenodesis group compared to the control group. The O'Brien test as indicator for lesions of the LHB was positive in fewer patients of the tenodesis group (2/26, vs. 21/30, p = 0.001). There was no significant difference of a positive Popeye Sign.

CONCLUSION

Our results show evidence of an improved shoulder function when a simultaneous tenodesis of the LHB tendon is performed during treatment of proximal humerus fractures using interlocking plate fixation.

Reconstruction or replacement? A challenging question in surgical treatment of complex humeral head fractures in the elderly

INTRODUCTION

Surgical treatment of complex humeral head fractures in the elderly is challenging due to osteoporotic bone, comorbidities and reduced compliance. The treatment strategy (reconstruction versus replacement) should allow for a functional aftercare and result in a high patient satisfaction. Major complications leading to surgical revision are crucial and should be avoided. The purpose of this study was to analyse the major complication rate leading to surgical revision and the patient-based outcome in complex humeral head fractures of the elderly population treated either using locking plate fixation (LCP) or reversed total shoulder arthroplasty (rTSA).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All patients older than 65 years surgically treated due to a four-part fracture of the proximal humerus between 2003 and 2015 were enrolled in our retrospective study. Major complications and revision rates were recorded and functional outcome was assessed using the Munich Shoulder Questionnaire (MSQ) allowing for qualitative self-assessment of the Shoulder Pain and Disability Index (SPADI), of the Disability of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) score and of the Constant Score.

RESULTS

A cohort of 103 patients with a mean age of 73.4 ± 6.2 years suffering from four-part fractures of the humeral head were enrolled. 63 patients were treated using the LCP fixation compared to 40 rTSAs. There were no significant differences in the patient-reported functional outcome. The revision rate was significantly higher in the LCP group (10/63; 15.9%) compared to the rTSA group (1/40; 2.5%). Reasons for revision were avascular head necrosis, cut-out of screws, secondary dislocation of the greater tuberosity and hypersensitivity to metal.

CONCLUSIONS

Reversed total shoulder arthroplasty and locking plate fixation are both established surgical procedures for the management of complex proximal humerus fractures in the elderly leading to similar functional results. However the revision rate in the rTSA group was significantly lower. Primary rTSA should, therefore, be favoured in multimorbid elderly patients with an increased complication risk to avoid repeated anaesthesia.