Cre-expressing neurons in visual cortex of Ntsr1-Cre GN220 mice are corticothalamic and are depolarized by acetylcholine

The Ntsr1-Cre GN220 mouse expresses Cre-recombinase in corticothalamic (CT) neurons in neocortical layer 6. It is not known if the other major types of pyramidal neurons in this layer also express this enzyme. By electrophysiological recordings in slices and histological analysis of the uptake of retrogradely transported beads we show that Cre-positive neurons are CT and not corticocortical or corticoclaustral types. Furthermore, we show that Ntsr1-Cre-positive cells are immuno-positive for the nuclear transcription factor Forkhead box protein P2 (FoxP2). We conclude that Cre-expression is limited to a specific type of pyramidal neuron: CT. However, it appears as not all CT neurons are Cre-expressing; there are indications that the penetrance of the gene is about 90%. We demonstrate the utility of assigning a specific identity to individual neurons by determining that the CT neurons are potently modulated by acetylcholine acting on both nicotinic and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. These results corroborate the suggested function of these neurons in regulating the gain of thalamocortical transfer of sensory information depending on attentional demand and state of arousal.

The initial stage of reversal learning is impaired in mice hemizygous for the vesicular glutamate transporter (VGluT1)

Behavioral flexibility is a complex cognitive function that is necessary for survival in changeable environments. Patients with schizophrenia or Parkinson's disease often suffer from cognitive rigidity, reducing their capacity to function in society. Patients and rodent models with focal lesions in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) show similar rigidity, owing to the loss of PFC regulation of subcortical reward circuits involved in behavioral flexibility. The vesicular glutamate transporter (VGluT1) is preferentially expressed at modulatory synapses, including PFC neurons that project to components of the reward circuit (such as the nucleus accumbens, NAc). VGluT1(+/-) mice display behavioral phenotypes matching many symptoms of schizophrenia, and VGluT1 expression is reduced in the PFC of patients with schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease. Thus, it appears likely that VGluT1-expressing synapses from PFC play a key role in behavioral flexibility. To examine this hypothesis, we studied behavioral flexibility in VGluT1(+/-) mice by testing reversal learning in a visual discrimination task. Here, we show that VGluT1(+/-) mice acquired the initial visual discrimination at the same rate as controls. However, they failed to suppress responses to the previously rewarded stimulus following reversal of reward contingencies. Thus, our genetic disruption of modulatory glutamatergic signaling, including that arising from PFC, appears to have impaired the first stage of reversal learning (extinguishing responses to previously rewarded stimuli). Our data show that this deficit stems from a preservative phenotype. These findings suggest that glutamatergic regulation from the cortex is important for behavioral flexibility and the disruption of this pathway may be relevant in diseases such as schizophrenia.

A potential screening technique for neurotransmitters in the CNS: model studies in the cat spinal cord

This paper describes a potential screening technique for neurotransmitters in the CNS. The method uses the injection of small volumes of high specific activity radioactive transmitter precursor substances into regions of physiologically identified neuronal cell bodies, and the later identification of the substances transported down axons to target tissues. Experiments were performed in motoneurons in the cat spinal cords to test the feasibility of method. Tritiated choline, glutamate, tyramine and tryptophan were pressure-injected into the ventral horn using glass micropipettes that were adapted to allow similtaneous physiological recording and injection. Only tritiated acetylcholine, two unidentified choline metabolites and a small amount of choline were found in the motor axons. The acetylcholine migrated at a rate of greater than 24mm/day and the movement was blocked by colchicine. The spread of isotope from the injection site was measured by a direct chemical method and by autoradiography, and was found that isotope spread1-2 mm from the injection site. One unexpected finding in the autoradiographs was that the motoneurons were selectively labelled following choline injections.