The Ras radiation resistance pathway

The critical pathways determining the resistance of tumor cells to ionizing radiation are poorly defined. Because the ras oncogene, a gene activated in many human cancers treated with radiotherapy, can induce increased radioresistance, we have asked which Ras effector pathways are significant in conferring a survival advantage to tumor cells. The phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor LY294002 radiosensitized cells bearing mutant ras oncogenes, but the survival of cells with wild-type ras was not affected. Inhibition of the PI3K downstream target p70S6K by rapamycin, the Raf-MEK-MAPK pathway with PD98059, or the Ras-MEK kinase-p38 pathway with SB203580 had no effect on radiation survival in cells with oncogenic ras. Expression of active PI3K in cells with wild-type ras resulted in increased radiation resistance that could be inhibited by LY294002. These experiments have indicated the importance of PI3K in mediating enhanced radioresistance and have implicated PI3K as a potential target for specific radiosensitization of tumors.

Direct evidence for the contribution of activated N-ras and K-ras oncogenes to increased intrinsic radiation resistance in human tumor cell lines

Transformation with ras oncogenes results in increased radiation sur vival in many but not all cells. In addition, prenyltransferase inhibitors which inhibit ras proteins by blocking posttranslational modification radiosensitize cells with oncogenic ras. These findings suggest that oncogenic ras contributes to intrinsic radiation resistance. However, because introduction of ras oncogenes does not increase radiation survival in all cells and because prenyltransferase inhibitors target molecules other than ras, these studies left the conclusion that ras increases the intrinsic radi ation resistance of tumor cells in doubt. Here we show that genetic inactivation of K- or N-ras oncogenes in human tumor cells (DLD-1 and HT1080, respectively) leads to increased radiosensitivity. Reintroduction of the activated N-ras gene into the HT1080 line, having lost its mutant allele, resulted in increased radiation resistance. This study lends further support to the hypothesis that expression of activated ras can contribute to intrinsic radiation resistance in human tumor cells and extends this finding to the K- and N- members of the ras family. These findings support the development of strategies that target ras for inactivation in the treatment of cancer.

RAS-Mediated radiation resistance is not linked to MAP kinase activation in two bladder carcinoma cell lines

The expression of activated RAS oncogenes has been shown to increase radioresistance in a number of cell lines. The pathways by which RAS leads to radioresistance, however, are unknown. RAS activates several signal transduction pathways, with the RAF-MAP2K-MAP kinase pathway perhaps the best studied. MAP kinase has also been shown to be activated by radiation through this pathway. Given the important role of MAP kinase in multiple signaling events, we asked if radioresistance induced by RAS was mediated through the activation of MAPK. Cells of two human bladder carcinoma cell lines were used, one with a mutated oncogenic HRAS (T24) and other with a wild-type HRAS (RT4). The surviving fraction after exposure to 2 Gy of radiation (SF2) for the T24 cell lines was found to be 0.62, whereas that for RT4 cells was 0.40. Treatment with the farnesyl transferase inhibitor (FTI) L744,832, which inhibits RAS processing and activity, decreased the SF2 of T24 cells to 0.29, whereas the SF2 of RT4 cells remained unchanged after FTI treatment, thus demonstrating the importance of RAS activation to the radiosensitivity of cells with mutated RAS. MAP kinase activation was found to be constitutive and dependent on RAS in T24 cells, while it was inducible by radiation and was independent of RAS in RT4 cells. Treatment of both cell lines with the MAP2K inhibitor PD98059 inhibited MAPK activation; however, inhibiting MAPK activation had no effect on radiation survival of T24 or RT4 cells. These data indicate that MAPK activation does not contribute to RAS-induced radioresistance in this system.

Reducing the radiation-induced G2 delay causes HeLa cells to undergo apoptosis instead of mitotic death

Cells exposed to radiation may undergo death through apoptosis or mitotic death. HeLa cells predominantly undergo mitotic death after irradiation. Treatment of these cells with caffeine has been shown to shorten the G2 delay after irradiation, and to decrease their survival. The kinase inhibitor staurosporine also decreases the radiation-induced G2 delay in HeLa cells. Here we extend these findings to show that the decrease in radiation-induced G2 delay mediated by caffeine or staurosporine is accompanied by a shift in the pathway of cell death from mitotic death to apoptotic death. The increase in apoptosis is further accompanied by decreased clonogenic survival after irradiation. Based on these findings we propose the hypothesis that one mechanism of enhancing cell killing by radiation is to trigger apoptosis by decreasing the G2 delay induced by irradiation.

The role of the H-ras oncogene in radiation resistance and metastasis

The sensitivity of tumor cells to the killing effects of ionizing radiation is thought to be one of the major determinants of curability of tumors in patients treated with radiation therapy. This paper reviews the evidence from our laboratory and other groups which supports a role for oncogenes in the induction of radioresistance in cultured mammalian cells. Primary rat embryo cells (REC) were chosen as a model system in which the effects on radiation resistance of the H-ras oncogene could be studied on a uniform genetic background. These cells offered several useful advantages. The cells prior to transformation are diploid and because they have been in culture only for a few passages prior to transformation with the oncogene it is unlikely that any preexisting mutation affecting radiation response could be present. Additionally, the use of REC permitted the study of the effects of synergism between oncogenes on the induction of the radioresistant phenotype. The results show that the activated H-ras oncogene induces radiation resistance in primary rat cells after transformation, but that the effect of the oncogene itself is small. However, the myc oncogene, which has no effect on radiation resistance by itself, appears to have a synergistic effect on the induction of radiation resistance by H-ras. Radiation resistance induced by H-ras plus myc is characterized by an increase in the slope of the curve at high doses but there is also a large effect within the shoulder region of the radiation survival curve. The AdenoE1A oncogene which will also act synergistically with ras in transformation assays plays a less clear-cut role in assays of radiation resistance. The H-ras oncogene is also known not only to transform cells but also to induce metastatic behavior in the tumors which form after these transformed cells are injected into syngeneic animals or nude mice. We have also shown in our primary rat embryo cell system that the induction of metastatic behavior in transformed cells, like the induction of radioresistance depends on a complex interaction between oncogenes and the cellular background. This evidence will be reviewed to demonstrate some of the analogies between radiation resistance and metastasis as examples of the complex alterations in cellular phenotype which occur after oncogene transfection.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Synergistic effect of the v-myc oncogene with H-ras on radioresistance

Resistance of tumors to irradiation or chemotherapeutic agents is thought to be one of the reasons why patients who present with early malignancies may not be cured. Much is now known about the molecular mechanisms that underlie drug resistance, but until recently little was known about genetic contributions to radiation resistance. Some evidence now links oncogenes, particularly the ras family of oncogenes, to radiation resistance but heterogeneity between tumors and cell lines has complicated this analysis. Primary rat embryo cells have been chosen as a model system in which the effects on radiation resistance of the H-ras oncogene could be studied on a uniform genetic background. These cells offer several useful advantages. The cells prior to transformation are diploid, and because they have been in culture only for a few passages prior to transformation with the oncogene it is unlikely that any preexisting mutation affecting radiation response could be present. Additionally, the use of rat embryo cells permitted the study of the effects of a second oncogene on the appearance of the radioresistant phenotype. The results show that the activated H-ras oncogene is associated with radiation resistance in primary rat cells after transformation but that the effect of the oncogene by itself is small. However, the oncogene v-myc, which has no effect on radiation resistance by itself, has a synergistic effect on radiation resistance with H-ras. There appear to be differences in the phenotype of radiation resistance associated with these two forms of transfectants. Thus, radiation resistance seen with H-ras by itself is characterized by a change in the slope of the radiation survival curve at high radiation doses but little or no change within the should region of the radiation survival curve. Radiation resistance seen in H-ras plus v-myc transformants is also characterized by an increase in the slope of the curve at high doses but there is also a large effect within the shoulder region of the radiation survival curve. These studies led to the following conclusions: (a) the radioresistant phenotype is not due to preexisting genetic heterogeneity in the cells prior to transfection; (b) the radiation resistant phenotype of cells transformed by H-ras is seen to a greater degree in cells which also contain the v-myc oncogene; (c) the v-myc oncogene may play an important role in the phenotype of radiation resistance at low doses that is within the range most critical for clinical practice.

Early changes accompanying development of adriamycin resistance in spheroids of a mouse mammary carcinoma line

The early changes accompanying development of ADR resistance were studied in a mouse mammary adenocarcinoma cell line sensitive to ADR (S). Resistant cells (R) were derived from S by five separate exposures to 1 microgram/ml ADR for 1 hr. The R cells had a 3-fold increased resistance to ADR, a higher proportion of larger cells, higher numbers of chromosomes per cell and higher incidence of minute chromosomes. R spheroids had a higher degree of differentiation. They were more compact, had increased numbers of gap-junctions, and altered membranes. An inversion in the X chromosome in S cells was corrected in the R cells.