An Overview of Plant Phenolic Compounds and Their Importance in Human Nutrition and Management of Type 2 Diabetes

In this paper, the biosynthesis process of phenolic compounds in plants is summarized, which include the shikimate, pentose phosphate and phenylpropanoid pathways. Plant phenolic compounds can act as antioxidants, structural polymers (lignin), attractants (flavonoids and carotenoids), UV screens (flavonoids), signal compounds (salicylic acid, flavonoids) and defense response chemicals (tannins, phytoalexins). From a human physiological standpoint, phenolic compounds are vital in defense responses, such as anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-proliferative activities. Therefore, it is beneficial to eat such plant foods that have a high antioxidant compound content, which will cut down the incidence of certain chronic diseases, for instance diabetes, cancers and cardiovascular diseases, through the management of oxidative stress. Furthermore, berries and other fruits with low-amylase and high-glucosidase inhibitory activities could be thought of as candidate food items in the control of the early stages of hyperglycemia associated with type 2 diabetes.

Brain anatomical network and intelligence

Intuitively, higher intelligence might be assumed to correspond to more efficient information transfer in the brain, but no direct evidence has been reported from the perspective of brain networks. In this study, we performed extensive analyses to test the hypothesis that individual differences in intelligence are associated with brain structural organization, and in particular that higher scores on intelligence tests are related to greater global efficiency of the brain anatomical network. We constructed binary and weighted brain anatomical networks in each of 79 healthy young adults utilizing diffusion tensor tractography and calculated topological properties of the networks using a graph theoretical method. Based on their IQ test scores, all subjects were divided into general and high intelligence groups and significantly higher global efficiencies were found in the networks of the latter group. Moreover, we showed significant correlations between IQ scores and network properties across all subjects while controlling for age and gender. Specifically, higher intelligence scores corresponded to a shorter characteristic path length and a higher global efficiency of the networks, indicating a more efficient parallel information transfer in the brain. The results were consistently observed not only in the binary but also in the weighted networks, which together provide convergent evidence for our hypothesis. Our findings suggest that the efficiency of brain structural organization may be an important biological basis for intelligence.

Networks of interconnected brain regions coordinate brain activities. Information is processed in the grey matter (cortex and subcortical structures) and passed along the network via whitish, fatty-coated fiber bundles, the white matter. Using maps of these white matter tracks, we provided evidence that higher intelligence may result from more efficient information transfer. Specifically, we hypothesized that higher IQ derives from higher global efficiency of the brain anatomical network. Seventy-nine healthy young adults were divided into general and high IQ groups. We used diffusion tensor tractography, which maps brain white matter fibers, to construct anatomical brain networks for each subject and calculated the network properties using both binary and weighted networks. We consistently found that the high intelligence group's brain network was significantly more efficient than was the general intelligence group's. Moreover, IQ scores were significantly correlated with network properties, such as shorter path lengths and higher overall efficiency, indicating that the information transfer in the brain was more efficient. These converging evidences support the hypothesis that the efficiency of the organization of the brain structure may be an important biological basis for intelligence.

Subregions of the human superior frontal gyrus and their connections

The superior frontal gyrus (SFG) is located at the superior part of the prefrontal cortex and is involved in a variety of functions, suggesting the existence of functional subregions. However, parcellation schemes of the human SFG and the connection patterns of each subregion remain unclear. We firstly parcellated the human SFG into the anteromedial (SFGam), dorsolateral (SFGdl), and posterior (SFGp) subregions based on diffusion tensor tractography. The SFGam was anatomically connected with the anterior and mid-cingulate cortices, which are critical nodes of the cognitive control network and the default mode network (DMN). The SFGdl was connected with the middle and inferior frontal gyri, which are involved in the cognitive execution network. The SFGp was connected with the precentral gyrus, caudate, thalamus, and frontal operculum, which are nodes of the motor control network. Resting-state functional connectivity analysis further revealed that the SFGam was mainly correlated with the cognitive control network and the DMN; the SFGdl was correlated with the cognitive execution network and the DMN; and the SFGp was correlated with the sensorimotor-related brain regions. The SFGam and SFGdl were further parcellated into three and two subclusters that are well corresponding to Brodmann areas. These findings suggest that the human SFG consists of multiple dissociable subregions that have distinct connection patterns and that these subregions are involved in different functional networks and serve different functions. These results may improve our understanding on the functional complexity of the SFG and provide us an approach to investigate the SFG at the subregional level.

Determination of the Mark-Houwink equation for chitosans with different degrees of deacetylation

The values of k and alpha in the Mark-Houwink equation have been determined for chitosans with different degrees of deacetylation (DD) (69, 84, 91 and 100% respectively), in 0.2 M CH3COOH/0.1 M CH3COONa aqueous solution at 30 degrees C by the light scattering method. It was shown that the values of alpha decreased from 1.12 to 0.81 and the values of k increased from 0.104 x 10(-3) to 16.80 x 10(-3) ml/g, when the DD varied from 69 to 100%. This is due to a reduction of rigidity of the molecular chain and an increase of the electrostatic repulsion force of the ionic groups along the polyelectrolyte chain in chitosan solution, when the DD of chitosan increases gradually.

MicroRNA-30d regulates cardiomyocyte pyroptosis by directly targeting foxo3a in diabetic cardiomyopathy

Diabetic cardiomyopathy is a common cardiac condition in patients with diabetes mellitus, which can result in cardiac hypertrophy and subsequent heart failure, associated with pyroptosis, the pro-inflammatory programmed cell death. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), small endogenous non-coding RNAs, have been shown to be involved in diabetic cardiomyopathy. However, whether miRNAs regulate pyroptosis in diabetic cardiomyopathy remains unknown. Our study revealed that mir-30d expression was substantially increased in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats and in high-glucose-treated cardiomyocytes as well. Upregulation of mir-30d promoted cardiomyocyte pyroptosis in diabetic cardiomyopathy; conversely, knockdown of mir-30d attenuated it. In an effort to understand the signaling mechanisms underlying the pro-pyroptotic property of mir-30d, we found that forced expression of mir-30d upregulated caspase-1 and pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18. Moreover, mir-30d directly repressed foxo3a expression and its downstream protein, apoptosis repressor with caspase recruitment domain (ARC). Furthermore, silencing ARC by siRNA mimicked the action of mir-30d: upregulating caspase-1 and inducing pyroptosis. These findings promoted us to propose a new signaling pathway leading to cardiomyocyte pyroptosis under hyperglycemic conditions: mir-30d↑→foxo3a↓→ ARC↓→caspase-1↑→IL-1β, IL-18↑→pyroptosis↑. Therefore, mir-30d may be a promising therapeutic target for the management of diabetic cardiomyopathy.

Resting-state functional connectivity of the vermal and hemispheric subregions of the cerebellum with both the cerebral cortical networks and subcortical structures

The human cerebellum is a heterogeneous structure, and the pattern of resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) of each subregion has not yet been fully characterized. We aimed to systematically investigate rsFC pattern of each cerebellar subregion in 228 healthy young adults. Voxel-based analysis revealed that several subregions showed similar rsFC patterns, reflecting functional integration; however, different subregions displayed distinct rsFC patterns, representing functional segregation. The same vermal and hemispheric subregions showed either different patterns or different strengths of rsFCs with the cerebrum, and different subregions of lobules VII and VIII displayed different rsFC patterns. Region of interest (ROI)-based analyses also confirmed these findings. Specifically, strong rsFCs were found: between lobules I-VI and vermal VIIb-IX and the visual network; between hemispheric VI, VIIb, VIIIa and the auditory network; between lobules I-VI, VIII and the sensorimotor network; between lobule IX, vermal VIIIb and the default-mode network; between lobule Crus I, hemispheric Crus II and the fronto-parietal network; between hemispheric VIIb, VIII and the task-positive network; between hemispheric VI, VIIb, VIII and the salience network; between most cerebellar subregions and the thalamus; between lobules V, VIIb and the midbrain red nucleus; between hemispheric Crus I, Crus II, vermal VIIIb, IX and the caudate nucleus; between lobules V, VI, VIIb, VIIIa and the pallidum and putamen; and between lobules I-V, hemispheric VIII, IX and the hippocampus and amygdala. These results confirm the existence of both functional integration and segregation among cerebellar subregions and largely improve our understanding of the functional organization of the human cerebellum.

Whole brain functional connectivity in the early blind

Early visual deprivation can lead to changes in the brain, which may be explained by either of two hypotheses. The general loss hypothesis has been proposed to explain maladjustments, while the compensatory plasticity hypothesis may explain a superior ability in the use of the remaining senses. Most previous task-based functional MRI (fMRI) studies have supported the compensatory plasticity hypothesis, but it has been difficult to provide evidence to support the general loss hypothesis, since the blind cannot execute visual tasks. The study of resting state fMRI data may provide an opportunity to simultaneously detect the two aspects of changes in the blind. In this study, using a whole brain perspective, we investigated the decreased and increased functional connectivities in the early blind using resting state fMRI data. The altered functional connectivities were identified by comparing the correlation coefficients of each pair of brain regions of 16 early blind subjects (9 males; age range: 15.6-29.3 years, mean age: 22.1 years) with the corresponding coefficients of gender- and age-matched sighted volunteers. Compared with the sighted subjects, the blind demonstrated the decreased functional connectivities within the occipital visual cortices as well as between the occipital visual cortices and the parietal somatosensory, frontal motor and temporal multisensory cortices. Such differences may support the general loss hypothesis. However, we also found that the introduction of Braille earlier in life and for longer daily practice times produced stronger functional connectivities between these brain areas. These findings may support the compensatory plasticity hypothesis. Additionally, we found several increased functional connectivities between the occipital cortices and frontal language cortices in those with early onset of blindness, which indicate the predominance of compensatory plasticity. Our findings indicate that changes in the functional connectivities in the resting state may be an integrated reflection of general loss and compensatory plasticity when a single sensory modality is deprived.

Extent of compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue and burnout in nursing: A meta-analysis

AIMS

A meta-analysis was conducted of the prevalence rates of compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue and burnout to identify the factors influencing these rates.

BACKGROUND

The extents of compassion fatigue and burnout adversely affect nursing efficiency. However, the reported prevalence rates vary considerably.

METHODS

Data were acquired from electronic databases. Random effects meta-analyses were performed to obtain pooled estimates of the prevalence rates of compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue and burnout and their respective instrumental scores. Meta-regression analyses were performed to identify factors influencing these rates.

RESULTS

Data from 21 studies were used for the meta-analysis. The prevalence rates of compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue and burnout were 47.55%, 52.55% and 51.98%, respectively. The possession of Bachelor's or Master's degrees by the nurses was significantly inversely associated with the percent prevalence of compassion fatigue (coefficient: -1.187) and burnout (coefficient: -0.810). The compassion fatigue score was also significantly inversely associated with nursing status as registered or licensed practical nurse (coefficient: -0.135).

CONCLUSION

In nursing, the prevalence rates of compassion fatigue and burnout are high. Better education and training may have a moderating effect on compassion fatigue and burnout and could improve the quality of life of nurses.

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity of the soluble recombinant hepatitis C virus NS5B protein truncated at the C-terminal region

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS5B protein encodes an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP), which is the central catalytic enzyme of HCV replicase. We established a new method to purify soluble HCV NS5B in the glutathione S-transferase-fused form NS5Bt from Escherichia coli which lacks the C-terminal 21 amino acid residues encompassing a putative anchoring domain (anino acids 2990-3010). The recombinant soluble protein exhibited RdRP activity in vitro which was dependent upon the template and primer, but it did not exhibit the terminal transferase activity that has been reported to be associated with the recombinant NS5B protein from insect cells. The RdRP activity of purified glutathione S-transferase-NS5Bt and thrombin-cleavaged non-fused NS5Bt shares most of the properties. Substitution mutations of NS5Bt at the GDD motif, which is highly conserved among viral RdRPs, and at the clustered basic residues (amino acids 2919-2924 and 2693-2699) abolished the RdRP activity. The C-terminal region of NS5B, which is dispensable for the RdRP activity, dramatically affected the subcellular localization of NS5B retaining it in perinuclear sites in transiently overexpressed mammalian cells. These results may provide some clues to dissecting the molecular mechanism of the HCV replication and also act as a basis for developing new anti-viral drugs.

Autosomal-Recessive Intellectual Disability with Cerebellar Atrophy Syndrome Caused by Mutation of the Manganese and Zinc Transporter Gene SLC39A8

Manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) are essential divalent cations used by cells as protein cofactors; various human studies and animal models have demonstrated the importance of Mn and Zn for development. Here we describe an autosomal-recessive disorder in six individuals from the Hutterite community and in an unrelated Egyptian sibpair; the disorder is characterized by intellectual disability, developmental delay, hypotonia, strabismus, cerebellar atrophy, and variable short stature. Exome sequencing in one affected Hutterite individual and the Egyptian family identified the same homozygous variant, c.112G>C (p.Gly38Arg), affecting a conserved residue of SLC39A8. The affected Hutterite and Egyptian individuals did not share an extended common haplotype, suggesting that the mutation arose independently. SLC39A8 is a member of the solute carrier gene family known to import Mn, Zn, and other divalent cations across the plasma membrane. Evaluation of these two metal ions in the affected individuals revealed variably low levels of Mn and Zn in blood and elevated levels in urine, indicating renal wasting. Our findings identify a human Mn and Zn transporter deficiency syndrome linked to SLC39A8, providing insight into the roles of Mn and Zn homeostasis in human health and development.

Abnormal salience network in normal aging and in amnestic mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease

The salience network (SN) serves to identify salient stimuli and to switch between the central executive network (CEN) and the default-mode network (DMN), both of which are impaired in Alzheimer's disease (AD)/amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI). We hypothesized that both the structural and functional organization of the SN and functional interactions between the SN and CEN/DMN are altered in normal aging and in AD/aMCI. Gray matter volume (GMV) and resting-state functional connectivity (FC) were analyzed from healthy younger (HYC) to older controls (HOC) and from HOC to aMCI and AD patients. All the SN components showed significant differences in the GMV, intranetwork FC, and internetwork FC between the HYC and HOC. Most of the SN components showed differences in the GMV between the HOC and AD and between the aMCI and AD. Compared with the HOC, AD patients exhibited significant differences in intra- and internetwork FCs of the SN, whereas aMCI patients demonstrated differences in internetwork FC of the SN. Most of the GMVs and internetwork FCs of the SN and part of the intranetwork FC of the SN were correlated with cognitive differences in older subjects. Our findings suggested that structural and functional impairments of the SN may occur as early as in normal aging and that functional disconnection between the SN and CEN/ DMN may also be associated with both normal aging and disease progression.

Increased neural resources recruitment in the intrinsic organization in major depression

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the functional connectivity (FC) pattern within an intrinsic functional organization, including both task-positive (TPN) and task-negative (TNN) networks, in major depressive disorder (MDD), and to examine relationships between the involved FCs and clinical variables.

METHODS

Resting-state FC analyses were used to identify the component brain regions of the intrinsic organization and to investigate the FCs of the individual component regions in 18 first-episode, medication-naïve MDD and 20 healthy control subjects.

RESULTS

We found that the intrinsic organization of the depressed group recruited more extensive regions than the control group. All of the altered FCs associated with the component regions increased in MDD. Specifically, in the TPN the increased FCs were primarily located in the bilateral lateral prefrontal cortices and the inferior parietal lobes, which have been implicated in attention and adaptive control. In the TNN, the increased FCs were primarily located in the posterior cingulate cortex and the medial orbitofrontal cortex, which are involved in episodic memory, self-reflection and emotional regulation. We also found increased anti-correlations between the two networks. Additionally, the strengths of the FCs associated with the lateral prefrontal cortices were found to be correlated with the duration of the depressive episode and the HDRS scores in the depressed patients.

LIMITATIONS

Clinical correlates of these abnormal FCs should be cautiously interpreted due to the small sample size in this study.

CONCLUSIONS

Abnormalities in the intrinsic organization may be an underlying basis for the pronounced and prolonged negative bias in processing emotional information observed in MDD.

Ammonium removal by a novel oligotrophic Acinetobacter sp. Y16 capable of heterotrophic nitrification-aerobic denitrification at low temperature

Ammonium removal from source water is usually inhibited by insufficient carbon sources and low temperature in Northeastern China. A strain Y16 was isolated from oligotrophic niche and was identified as Acinetobacter sp. Y16. It demonstrated excellent capability for ammonium removal at 2 °C, and simultaneously produced nitrogen gas as the end product. About 66% of ammonium was removed after 36 h of incubation. Only trace accumulation of nitrate was observed during the process. The utilization of nitrite and nitrate as well as the existence of napA gene further proved the aerobic denitrification ability of strain Y16. Sodium acetate was the most favorable carbon source for ammonium oxidation by strain Y16. High rotation speed was beneficial for ammonium oxidation. Furthermore, strain Y16 could efficiently remove ammonium at low C/N ratio and low temperature conditions, which was advantageous for nitrogen removal from source water under cold temperatures.

PPARG, KCNJ11, CDKAL1, CDKN2A-CDKN2B, IDE-KIF11-HHEX, IGF2BP2 and SLC30A8 are associated with type 2 diabetes in a Chinese population

Background

Recent advance in genetic studies added the confirmed susceptible loci for type 2 diabetes to eighteen. In this study, we attempt to analyze the independent and joint effect of variants from these loci on type 2 diabetes and clinical phenotypes related to glucose metabolism.

Methods/Principal Findings

Twenty-one single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from fourteen loci were successfully genotyped in 1,849 subjects with type 2 diabetes and 1,785 subjects with normal glucose regulation. We analyzed the allele and genotype distribution between the cases and controls of these SNPs as well as the joint effects of the susceptible loci on type 2 diabetes risk. The associations between SNPs and type 2 diabetes were examined by logistic regression. The associations between SNPs and quantitative traits were examined by linear regression. The discriminative accuracy of the prediction models was assessed by area under the receiver operating characteristic curves. We confirmed the effects of SNPs from PPARG, KCNJ11, CDKAL1, CDKN2A-CDKN2B, IDE-KIF11-HHEX, IGF2BP2 and SLC30A8 on risk for type 2 diabetes, with odds ratios ranging from 1.114 to 1.406 (P value range from 0.0335 to 1.37E-12). But no significant association was detected between SNPs from WFS1, FTO, JAZF1, TSPAN8-LGR5, THADA, ADAMTS9, NOTCH2-ADAM30 and type 2 diabetes. Analyses on the quantitative traits in the control subjects showed that THADA SNP rs7578597 was association with 2-h insulin during oral glucose tolerance tests (P = 0.0005, empirical P = 0.0090). The joint effect analysis of SNPs from eleven loci showed the individual carrying more risk alleles had a significantly higher risk for type 2 diabetes. And the type 2 diabetes patients with more risk allele tended to have earlier diagnostic ages (P = 0.0006).

Conclusions/Significance

The current study confirmed the association between PPARG, KCNJ11, CDKAL1, CDKN2A-CDKN2B, IDE-KIF11-HHEX, IGF2BP2 and SLC30A8 and type 2 diabetes. These type 2 diabetes risk loci contributed to the disease additively.

Diffusion tensor tractography in patients with cerebral tumors: A helpful technique for neurosurgical planning and postoperative assessment

OBJECTIVE

To demonstrate the role of diffusion tensor tractography (DTT) in preoperative mapping of eloquent tracts in relation to cerebral tumors and to determine whether it is helpful for neurosurgical planning and postoperative assessment.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Sixteen patients with brain tumors underwent diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). The pyramidal tract, corpus callosum and optic radiation were reconstructed and the exact location of a lesion with respect to these tracts was observed to design a reasonable surgical plan for preserving vital tracts while maximizing tumor resection. After surgery, DTI was performed again and these tracts were evaluated to investigate the surgical outcomes. Twenty-four patients with suspicion of pyramidal tract involvement were also evaluated as a control group.

RESULTS

The relationship between tracts and tumors was classified as three types: type I is simple displacement, type II is displacement with disruption and type III is simple disruption. Twelve cases involved in pyramidal tract (DTT group), one was type I with reduction of displacement after surgery, nine were type II with reduction of displacement and other two were type III without any improvement. The extent of tumor resection (p = 0.045) and postoperative improvement of locomotive function (p = 0.015) of DTT group were significantly higher than those of control group. Corpus callosum was involved in seven cases, three were type II with reduction of displacement and four were type III without any improvement. Optic radiation was involved in three cases, all were type I with reduction of displacement.

CONCLUSION

DTT allowed for visualization of the exact location of tumors relevant to eloquent tracts and was found to be beneficial in the neurosurgical planning and postoperative assessment.

Altered Coupling Between Resting-State Cerebral Blood Flow and Functional Connectivity in Schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

Respective changes in resting-state cerebral blood flow (CBF) and functional connectivity in schizophrenia have been reported. However, their coupling alterations in schizophrenia remain largely unknown.

METHODS

89 schizophrenia patients and 90 sex- and age-matched healthy controls underwent resting-state functional MRI to calculate functional connectivity strength (FCS) and arterial spin labeling imaging to compute CBF. The CBF-FCS coupling of the whole gray matter and the CBF/FCS ratio (the amount of blood supply per unit of connectivity strength) of each voxel were compared between the 2 groups.

RESULTS

Whole gray matter CBF-FCS coupling was decreased in schizophrenia patients relative to healthy controls. In schizophrenia patients, the decreased CBF/FCS ratio was predominantly located in cognitive- and emotional-related brain regions, including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, insula, hippocampus and thalamus, whereas an increased CBF/FCS ratio was mainly identified in the sensorimotor regions, including the putamen, and sensorimotor, mid-cingulate and visual cortices.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that the neurovascular decoupling in the brain may be a possible neuropathological mechanism of schizophrenia.

Molecular heterogeneity of phospholipase D (PLD). Cloning of PLDgamma and regulation of plant PLDgamma, -beta, and -alpha by polyphosphoinositides and calcium

Phospholipase D (PLD) has emerged as an important enzyme involved in signal transduction, vesicle trafficking, and membrane metabolism. This report describes the cloning and expression of a new Arabidopsis PLD cDNA, designated PLDgamma, and the regulation of PLDgamma, -beta, and -alpha by phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) and Ca2+. The PLDgamma cDNA is 3.3 kilobases in length and codes for an 855-amino acid protein of 95,462 Da with a pI of 6.9. PLDgamma shares a 66% amino acid sequence identity with PLDbeta, but only a 41% identity with PLDalpha. A potential N-terminal myristoylation site is found in PLDgamma, but not in PLDalpha and -beta. Catalytically active PLDgamma was expressed in Escherichia coli, and its activity requires polyphosphoinositides. Both PLDgamma and -beta are most active at microM Ca2+ concentrations, whereas the optimal PLDalpha activity requires mM Ca2+ concentrations. Binding studies showed that the PLDs bound PIP2 in the order of PLDbeta > PLDgamma > PLDalpha. This binding ability correlates with the degree of conservation of a basic PIP2-binding motif located near the putative catalytic site. The binding of [3H]PIP2 was saturable and could be competitively decreased by addition of unlabeled PIP2. Neomycin inhibited the activities of PLDgamma and -beta, but not PLDalpha. These results demonstrate that PLD is encoded by a heterogeneous gene family and that direct polyphosphoinositide binding is required for the activities of PLDgamma and -beta, but not PLDalpha. The different structural and biochemical properties suggest that PLDalpha, -beta, and -gamma are regulated differently and may mediate unique cellular functions.

A therapeutic role for cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors in a transgenic mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Recent studies indicate that the proinflammatory enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, an enzyme involved in inflammatory cascades but also normal neuronal activities, is elevated in the brain and spinal cord of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) patients and ALS mouse model systems. On the basis of this evidence, we explored the impact of COX-2 inhibition on the onset and progression of ALS-like disease in the G93A human superoxide dismutase (SOD)1 mouse model of ALS. We found that prophylactic administration of nimesulide, a preferential COX-2 inhibitor, in the feed resulted in a significant delay in the onset of ALS type motor impairment. This delay of ALS symptomatology temporally overlapped with the inhibition of prostaglandin E2 elevation in the spinal cord of SOD1-G93A transgenic mice relative to untreated SOD1-G93A controls. This study strongly supports a role for COX-2 in the pathophysiology of ALS and provides the first experimental evidence that prophylactic treatment with COX-2 inhibitors can significantly delay the onset of motor dysfunction in the SOD1-G93A transgenic mouse model of ALS.