Ferroptosis: process and function

Ferroptosis is a recently recognized form of regulated cell death. It is characterized morphologically by the presence of smaller than normal mitochondria with condensed mitochondrial membrane densities, reduction or vanishing of mitochondria crista, and outer mitochondrial membrane rupture. It can be induced by experimental compounds (e.g., erastin, Ras-selective lethal small molecule 3, and buthionine sulfoximine) or clinical drugs (e.g., sulfasalazine, sorafenib, and artesunate) in cancer cells and certain normal cells (e.g., kidney tubule cells, neurons, fibroblasts, and T cells). Activation of mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channels and mitogen-activated protein kinases, upregulation of endoplasmic reticulum stress, and inhibition of cystine/glutamate antiporter is involved in the induction of ferroptosis. This process is characterized by the accumulation of lipid peroxidation products and lethal reactive oxygen species (ROS) derived from iron metabolism and can be pharmacologically inhibited by iron chelators (e.g., deferoxamine and desferrioxamine mesylate) and lipid peroxidation inhibitors (e.g., ferrostatin, liproxstatin, and zileuton). Glutathione peroxidase 4, heat shock protein beta-1, and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 function as negative regulators of ferroptosis by limiting ROS production and reducing cellular iron uptake, respectively. In contrast, NADPH oxidase and p53 (especially acetylation-defective mutant p53) act as positive regulators of ferroptosis by promotion of ROS production and inhibition of expression of SLC7A11 (a specific light-chain subunit of the cystine/glutamate antiporter), respectively. Misregulated ferroptosis has been implicated in multiple physiological and pathological processes, including cancer cell death, neurotoxicity, neurodegenerative diseases, acute renal failure, drug-induced hepatotoxicity, hepatic and heart ischemia/reperfusion injury, and T-cell immunity. In this review, we summarize the regulation mechanisms and signaling pathways of ferroptosis and discuss the role of ferroptosis in disease.

Akt phosphorylates and negatively regulates apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1

The Akt family of serine/threonine-directed kinases promotes cellular survival in part by phosphorylating and inhibiting death-inducing proteins. Here we describe a novel functional interaction between Akt and apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1), a mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase. Akt decreased ASK1 kinase activity stimulated by both oxidative stress and overexpression in 293 cells by phosphorylating a consensus Akt site at serine 83 of ASK1. Activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3-K)/Akt pathway also inhibited the serum deprivation-induced activity of endogenous ASK1 in L929 cells. An association between Akt and ASK1 was detected in cells by coimmunoprecipitation. Phosphorylation by Akt inhibited ASK1-mediated c-Jun N-terminal kinase and activating transcription factor 2 activities in intact cells. Finally, activation of the PI3-K/Akt pathway reduced apoptosis induced by ASK1 in a manner dependent on phosphorylation of serine 83 of ASK1. These results provide the first direct link between Akt and the family of stress-activated kinases.

Impaired physiological responses to chronic hypoxia in mice partially deficient for hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha

Chronic hypoxia induces polycythemia, pulmonary hypertension, right ventricular hypertrophy, and weight loss. Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) activates transcription of genes encoding proteins that mediate adaptive responses to hypoxia, including erythropoietin, vascular endothelial growth factor, and glycolytic enzymes. Expression of the HIF-1alpha subunit increases exponentially as O2 concentration is decreased. Hif1a-/- mouse embryos with complete deficiency of HIF-1alpha due to homozygosity for a null allele at the Hif1a locus die at midgestation, with multiple cardiovascular malformations and mesenchymal cell death. Hif1a+/- heterozygotes develop normally and are indistinguishable from Hif1a+/+ wild-type littermates when maintained under normoxic conditions. In this study, the physiological responses of Hif1a+/- and Hif1a+/+ mice exposed to 10% O2 for one to six weeks were analyzed. Hif1a+/- mice demonstrated significantly delayed development of polycythemia, right ventricular hypertrophy, pulmonary hypertension, and pulmonary vascular remodeling and significantly greater weight loss compared with wild-type littermates. These results indicate that partial HIF-1alpha deficiency has significant effects on multiple systemic responses to chronic hypoxia.

The early prediction of mortality in acute pancreatitis: a large population-based study

BACKGROUND

Identification of patients at risk for mortality early in the course of acute pancreatitis (AP) is an important step in improving outcome.

METHODS

Using Classification and Regression Tree (CART) analysis, a clinical scoring system was developed for prediction of in-hospital mortality in AP. The scoring system was derived on data collected from 17,992 cases of AP from 212 hospitals in 2000-2001. The new scoring system was validated on data collected from 18,256 AP cases from 177 hospitals in 2004-2005. The accuracy of the scoring system for prediction of mortality was measured by the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC). The performance of the new scoring system was further validated by comparing its predictive accuracy with that of Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Examination (APACHE) II.

RESULTS

CART analysis identified five variables for prediction of in-hospital mortality. One point is assigned for the presence of each of the following during the first 24 h: blood urea nitrogen (BUN) >25 mg/dl; impaired mental status; systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS); age >60 years; or the presence of a pleural effusion (BISAP). Mortality ranged from >20% in the highest risk group to <1% in the lowest risk group. In the validation cohort, the BISAP AUC was 0.82 (95% CI 0.79 to 0.84) versus APACHE II AUC of 0.83 (95% CI 0.80 to 0.85).

CONCLUSIONS

A new mortality-based prognostic scoring system for use in AP has been derived and validated. The BISAP is a simple and accurate method for the early identification of patients at increased risk for in-hospital mortality.

HSPB1 as a novel regulator of ferroptotic cancer cell death

Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent form of non-apoptotic cell death, but its molecular mechanism remains largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that heat shock protein beta-1 (HSPB1) is a negative regulator of ferroptotic cancer cell death. Erastin, a specific ferroptosis-inducing compound, stimulates heat shock factor 1 (HSF1)-dependent HSPB1 expression in cancer cells. Knockdown of HSF1 and HSPB1 enhances erastin-induced ferroptosis, whereas heat shock pretreatment and overexpression of HSPB1 inhibits erastin-induced ferroptosis. Protein kinase C-mediated HSPB1 phosphorylation confers protection against ferroptosis by reducing iron-mediated production of lipid reactive oxygen species. Moreover, inhibition of the HSF1-HSPB1 pathway and HSPB1 phosphorylation increases the anticancer activity of erastin in human xenograft mouse tumor models. Our findings reveal an essential role for HSPB1 in iron metabolism with important effects on ferroptosis-mediated cancer therapy.

Targeted disruption of Fgf8 causes failure of cell migration in the gastrulating mouse embryo

Fgf8 and Fgf4 encode FGF family members that are coexpressed in the primitive streak of the gastrulating mouse embryo. We have analyzed the phenotype of Fgf8(-/-) embryos and discovered that they fail to express Fgf4 in the streak. In the absence of both FGF8 and FGF4, epiblast cells move into the streak and undergo an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, but most cells then fail to move away from the streak. As a consequence, no embryonic mesoderm- or endoderm-derived tissues develop, although extraembryonic tissues form. Patterning of the prospective neuroectoderm is greatly perturbed in the mutant embryos. Anterior neuroectoderm markers are widely expressed, at least in part because the anterior visceral endoderm, which provides signals that regulate their expression, is not displaced proximally in the absence of definitive endoderm. Posterior neuroectoderm markers are not expressed, presumably because there is neither mesendoderm underlying the prospective neuroectoderm nor a morphologically normal node to provide the inductive signals necessary for their expression. This study identifies Fgf8 as a gene essential for gastrulation and shows that signaling via FGF8 and/or FGF4 is required for cell migration away from the primitive streak.

p73 is regulated by tyrosine kinase c-Abl in the apoptotic response to DNA damage

The protein p73 is a structural and functional homologue of the p53 tumour-suppressor protein but, unlike p53, it is not induced in response to DNA damage. The tyrosine kinase c-Abl is activated by certain DNA-damaging agents and contributes to the induction of programmed cell death (apoptosis) by p53-dependent and p53-independent mechanisms. Here we show that c-Abl binds to p73 in cells, interacting through its SH3 domain with the carboxy-terminal homo-oligomerization domain of p73. c-Abl phosphorylates p73 on a tyrosine residue at position 99 both in vitro and in cells that have been exposed to ionizing radiation. Our results show that c-Abl stimulates p73-mediated transactivation and apoptosis. This regulation of p73 by c-Abl in response to DNA damage is also demonstrated by a failure of ionizing-radiation-induced apoptosis after disruption of the c-Abl-p73 interaction. These findings show that p73 is regulated by a c-Abl-dependent mechanism and that p73 participates in the apoptotic response to DNA damage.

Vertebrate Sprouty genes are induced by FGF signaling and can cause chondrodysplasia when overexpressed

The Drosophila sprouty gene encodes an antagonist of FGF and EGF signaling whose expression is induced by the signaling pathways that it inhibits. Here we describe a family of vertebrate Sprouty homologs and demonstrate that the regulatory relationship with FGF pathways has been conserved. In both mouse and chick embryos, Sprouty genes are expressed in intimate association with FGF signaling centers. Gain- and loss-of-function experiments demonstrate that FGF signaling induces Sprouty gene expression in various tissues. Sprouty overexpression obtained by infecting the prospective wing territory of the chick embryo with a retrovirus containing a mouse Sprouty gene causes a reduction in limb bud outgrowth and other effects consistent with reduced FGF signaling from the apical ectodermal ridge. At later stages of development in the infected limbs there was a dramatic reduction in skeletal element length due to an inhibition of chondrocyte differentiation. The results provide evidence that vertebrate Sprouty proteins function as FGF-induced feedback inhibitors, and suggest a possible role for Sprouty genes in the pathogenesis of specific human chondrodysplasias caused by activating mutations in Fgfr3.

Expression of vaccinia recombinant HPV 16 L1 and L2 ORF proteins in epithelial cells is sufficient for assembly of HPV virion-like particles

A recombinant vaccinia virus termed pLC201VV was designed to coexpress the L1 and L2 late genes of human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16). Synthesis of the L1 and L2 proteins occurred in cells infected with pLC201VV, and 40-nm virus-like particles with a density of 1.31 g/ml were produced in the nuclei of cells synthesizing both L1 and L2, but not in cells synthesizing either protein alone. Virus-like particles were partially purified from infected cells by sucrose gradient sedimentation and shown to consist of capsomeres similar to HPV and contain glycosylated L1 viral capsid protein. The production of HPV-like particles using recombinant vaccinia virus should be useful for biochemical studies and could provide a safe source of material for the development of a vaccine.

Fgf8 signalling from the AER is essential for normal limb development

Vertebrate limb development depends on signals from the apical ectodermal ridge (AER), which rims the distal tip of the limb bud. Removal of the AER in chick results in limbs lacking distal skeletal elements. Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) proteins can substitute for the AER (refs 4-7), suggesting that FGF signalling mediates AER activity. Of the four mouse Fgf genes (Fgf4 , Fgf8, Fgf9, Fgf17) known to display AER-specific expression domains within the limb bud (AER-Fgfs), only Fgf8 is expressed throughout the AER. Moreover, Fgf8 expression precedes that of other AER-Fgfs (refs 8-13), suggesting that Fgf8 may perform unique functions early in limb development. In mice, loss of function of Fgf4 (refs 13,14), Fgf9 (D. Ornitz, pers. comm.) or Fgf17 (ref. 15) has no effect on limb formation. We report here that inactivating Fgf8 in early limb ectoderm causes a substantial reduction in limb-bud size, a delay in Shh expression, misregulation of Fgf4 expression, and hypoplasia or aplasia of specific skeletal elements. Our data identify Fgf8 as the only known AER-Fgf individually necessary for normal limb development, and provide insight into the function of Fgf signalling from the AER in the normal outgrowth and patterning of the limb.

A Combinatorial Approach to Materials Discovery

A method that combines thin film deposition and physical masking techniques has been used for the parallel synthesis of spatially addressable libraries of solid-state materials. Arrays containing different combinations, stoichiometries, and deposition sequences of BaCO(3), Bi(2)O(3), CaO, CuO, PbO, SrCO(3), and Y(2)O(3) were generated with a series of binary masks. The arrays were sintered and BiSrCaCuO and YBaCuO superconducting films were identified. Samples as small as 200 micrometers by 200 micrometers in size were generated, corresponding to library densities of 10,000 sites per square inch. The ability to generate and screen combinatorial libraries of solid-state compounds, when coupled with theory and empirical observations, may significantly increase the rate at which novel electronic, magnetic, and optical materials are discovered and theoretical predictions tested.

The mitochondrial KATP channel as a receptor for potassium channel openers

The biochemical properties of the mitochondrial KATP channel are very similar to those of plasma membrane KATP channels, including inhibition by low concentrations of ATP and glyburide (Paucek, P., Mironova, G., Mahdi, F., Beavis, A. D., Woldegiorgis, G., and Garlid, K. D. (1992) J. Biol. Chem. 267, 26062-26069). Plasma membrane KATP channels are highly sensitive to the family of drugs known as K+ channel openers, raising the question whether mitochondrial KATP channels are similarly sensitive to these agents. We addressed this question by measuring K+ flux in intact rat liver mitochondria and in liposomes containing KATP channels purified from rat liver and beef heart mitochondria. K+ channel openers completely reversed ATP inhibition of K+ flux in both systems. In liposomes, ATP-inhibited K+ flux was restored by diazoxide (K1/2 = 0.4 microM), cromakalim (K1/2 = 1 microM), and two developmental cromakalim analogues, EMD60480 and EMD57970 (K1/2 = 6 nM). Similar K1/2 values were observed in intact mitochondria. These potencies are well within the range observed with plasma membrane KATP channels. We also compared the potencies of these K+ channel openers on the plasma membrane KATP channel purified from beef heart myocytes. The KATP channel from cardiac mitochondria is 2000-fold more sensitive to diazoxide than the channel from cardiac sarcolemma, indicating that two distinct receptor subtypes coexist within the myocyte. We suggest that the mitochondrial KATP channel is an important intracellular receptor that should be taken into account in considering the pharmacology of K+ channel openers.

Rapid exchange of histone H1.1 on chromatin in living human cells

The considerable length of DNA in eukaryotic genomes requires packaging into chromatin to fit inside the small dimensions of the cell nucleus. Histone H1 functions in the compaction of chromatin into higher order structures derived from the repeating 'beads on a string' nucleosome polymer. Modulation of H1 binding activity is thought to be an important step in the potentiation/depotentiation of chromatin structure for transcription. It is generally accepted that H1 binds less tightly than other histones to DNA in chromatin and can readily exchange in living cells. Fusion proteins of Histone H1 and green fluorescent protein (GFP) have been shown to associate with chromatin in an apparently identical fashion to native histone H1. This provides a means by which to study histone H1-chromatin interactions in living cells. Here we have used human cells with a stably integrated H1.1-GFP fusion protein to monitor histone H1 movement directly by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching in living cells. We find that exchange is rapid in both condensed and decondensed chromatin, occurs throughout the cell cycle, and does not require fibre-fibre interactions. Treatment with drugs that alter protein phosphorylation significantly reduces exchange rates. Our results show that histone H1 exchange in vivo is rapid, occurs through a soluble intermediate, and is modulated by the phosphorylation of a protein or proteins as yet to be determined.

Analyses of volatile organic compounds from human skin

BACKGROUND

Human skin emits a variety of volatile metabolites, many of them odorous. Much previous work has focused upon chemical structure and biogenesis of metabolites produced in the axillae (underarms), which are a primary source of human body odour. Nonaxillary skin also harbours volatile metabolites, possibly with different biological origins than axillary odorants.

OBJECTIVES

To take inventory of the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from the upper back and forearm skin, and assess their relative quantitative variation across 25 healthy subjects.

METHODS

Two complementary sampling techniques were used to obtain comprehensive VOC profiles, viz., solid-phase microextraction and solvent extraction. Analyses were performed using both gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and gas chromatography with flame photometric detection.

RESULTS

Nearly 100 compounds were identified, some of which varied with age. The VOC profiles of the upper back and forearm within a subject were, for the most part, similar, although there were notable differences.

CONCLUSIONS

The natural variation in nonaxillary skin odorants described in this study provides a baseline of compounds we have identified from both endogenous and exogenous sources. Although complex, the profiles of volatile constituents suggest that the two body locations share a considerable number of compounds, but both quantitative and qualitative differences are present. In addition, quantitative changes due to ageing are also present. These data may provide future investigators of skin VOCs with a baseline against which any abnormalities can be viewed in searching for biomarkers of skin diseases.

Identification of a blue photoluminescent composite material from a combinatorial library

A quaternary combinatorial masking strategy was used in conjunction with photolithography to generate compositionally diverse thin-film phosphor libraries containing 1024 different compositions on substrates 2.5 centimeters square. A parallel imaging system and scanning spectrophotometer were used to identify and characterize compositions in the library with interesting luminescent behavior. Optimal compositions were identified with the use of gradient libraries, in which the stoichiometry of a material was varied continuously. This process led to the identification of an efficient blue photoluminescent composite material, Gd3Ga5O12/SiO2. Experimental evidence suggests that luminescence in this material may arise from interfacial effects between SiO2 and Gd3Ga5O12.

Intron function in the nonsense-mediated decay of beta-globin mRNA: indications that pre-mRNA splicing in the nucleus can influence mRNA translation in the cytoplasm

Generally, mRNAs that prematurely terminate translation are abnormally low in abundance. In the case of mammalian cells, nonsense codons most often mediate a reduction in the abundance of newly synthesized, nucleus-associated mRNA by a mechanism that is not well understood. With the aim of defining cis-acting sequences that are important to the reduction process, the effects of particular beta-globin gene rearrangements on the metabolism of beta-globin mRNAs harboring one of a series of nonsense codons have been assessed. Results indicate that nonsense codons located 54 bp or more upstream of the 3'-most intron, intron 2, reduce the abundance of nucleus-associated mRNA to 10-15% of normal without altering the level of either of the two introns within pre-mRNA. The level of cytoplasmic mRNA is also reduced to 10-15% of normal, indicating that decay does not take place once the mRNA is released from an association with nuclei into the cytoplasm. A nonsense codon within exon 2 that does not reduce mRNA abundance can be converted to the type that does by (1) inserting a sufficiently large in-frame sequence immediately upstream of intron 2 or (2) deleting and reinserting intron 2 a sufficient distance downstream of its usual position. These findings indicate that only those nonsense codons located more than 54 bp upstream of the 3'-most intron reduce beta-globin mRNA abundance, which is remarkably consistent with which nonsense codons within the triosephosphate isomerase (TPI) gene reduce TPI mRNA abundance. We propose that the 3'-most exon-exon junction of beta-globin mRNA and, possibly, most mRNAs is marked by the removal of the 3'-most intron during pre-mRNA splicing and that the "mark" accompanies mRNA during transport to the cytoplasm. When cytoplasmic ribosomes terminate translation more than 54 nt upstream of the mark during or immediately after transport, the mRNA is subjected to nonsense-mediated decay. The finding that deletion of beta-globin intron 2 does not appreciably alter the effect of any nonsense codon on beta-globin mRNA abundance suggests that another cis-acting sequence functions in nonsense-mediated decay comparably to intron 2, at least in the absence of intron 2, possibly as a fail-safe mechanism. The analysis of deletions and insertions indicates that this sequence resides within the coding region and can be functionally substituted by intron 2.

Conditional inactivation of Fgf4 reveals complexity of signalling during limb bud development

Development of the vertebrate limb bud depends on reciprocal interactions between the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA) and the apical ectodermal ridge (AER). Sonic hedgehog (SHH) and fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) are key signalling molecules produced in the ZPA and AER, respectively. Experiments in chicks suggested that SHH expression in the ZPA is maintained by FGF4 expression in the AER, and vice versa, providing a molecular mechanism for coordinating the activities of these two signalling centres. This SHH/FGF4 feedback loop model is supported by genetic evidence showing that Fgf4 expression is not maintained in Shh-/- mouse limbs. We report here that Shh expression is maintained and limb formation is normal when Fgf4 is inactivated in mouse limbs, thus contradicting the model. We also found that maintenance of Fgf9 and Fgf17 expression is dependent on Shh, whereas Fgf8 expression is not. We discuss a model in which no individual Fgf expressed in the AER (AER-Fgf) is solely necessary to maintain Shh expression, but, instead, the combined activities of two or more AER-Fgfs function in a positive feedback loop with Shh to control limb development.

Mitochondrial translocation of protein kinase C delta in phorbol ester-induced cytochrome c release and apoptosis

Apoptosis is induced by the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria to the cytoplasm. The present studies demonstrate that the phorbol ester 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) induces translocation of protein kinase C (PKC) delta from the cytoplasm to mitochondria. The results also show that translocation of PKCdelta results in release of cytochrome c. The functional significance of this event is further supported by the demonstration that PKCdelta translocation is required for TPA-induced apoptosis. These findings demonstrate that translocation of PKCdelta to mitochondria is responsible, at least in part, for inducing cytochrome c release and apoptosis.

A human RNA polymerase II complex containing factors that modify chromatin structure

We have isolated a human RNA polymerase II complex that contains chromatin structure remodeling activity and histone acetyltransferase activity. This complex contains the Srb proteins, the Swi-Snf complex, and the histone acetyltransferases CBP and PCAF in addition to RNA polymerase II. Notably, the general transcription factors are absent from this complex. The complex was purified by two different methods: conventional chromatography and affinity chromatography using antibodies directed against CDK8, the human homolog of the yeast Srb10 protein. Protein interaction studies demonstrate a direct interaction between RNA polymerase II and the histone acetyltransferases p300 and PCAF. Importantly, p300 interacts specifically with the nonphosphorylated, initiation-competent form of RNA polymerase II. In contrast, PCAF interacts with the elongation-competent, phosphorylated form of RNA polymerase II.

At least one intron is required for the nonsense-mediated decay of triosephosphate isomerase mRNA: a possible link between nuclear splicing and cytoplasmic translation

Mammalian cells have established mechanisms to reduce the abundance of mRNAs that harbor a nonsense codon and prematurely terminate translation. In the case of the human triosephosphate isomerase (TPI gene), nonsense codons located less than 50 to 55 bp upstream of intron 6, the 3'-most intron, fail to mediate mRNA decay. With the aim of understanding the feature(s) of TPI intron 6 that confer function in positioning the boundary between nonsense codons that do and do not mediate decay, the effects of deleting or duplicating introns have been assessed. The results demonstrate that TPI intron 6 functions to position the boundary because it is the 3'-most intron. Since decay takes place after pre-mRNA splicing, it is conceivable that removal of the 3'-most intron from pre-mRNA "marks" the 3'-most exon-exon junction of product mRNA so that only nonsense codons located more than 50 to 55 nucleotides upstream of the "mark" mediate mRNA decay. Decay may be elicited by the failure of translating ribosomes to translate sufficiently close to the mark or, more likely, the scanning or looping out of some component(s) of the translation termination complex to the mark. In support of scanning, a nonsense codon does not elicit decay if some of the introns that normally reside downstream of the nonsense codon are deleted so the nonsense codon is located (i) too far away from a downstream intron, suggesting that all exon-exon junctions may be marked, and (ii) too far away from a downstream failsafe sequence that appears to function on behalf of intron 6, i.e., when intron 6 fails to leave a mark. Notably, the proposed scanning complex may have a greater unwinding capability than the complex that scans for a translation initiation codon since a hairpin structure strong enough to block translation initiation when inserted into the 5' untranslated region does not block nonsense-mediated decay when inserted into exon 6 between a nonsense codon residing in exon 6 and intron 6.